Data Analysis

WHAT TO DO WHEN THE
NUMBERS ARE IN
A lecture on data analysis and its applications
Targets
• Situate researchers in the
data analysis process
• Perform proper diagnosis a
problem
• Specify appropriate statistical
test/s given a problem
• Generate statistical results
using SPSS
• Make sensible interpretation
of data analysis results
What is data analysis?
Making sense out a set

of raw observations with
the aim of addressing
the goal(s) of the
research
Learning from MDs…
• Diagnose patient
• Prescribe appropriate
tests/meds
• Secure lab results
• Interpret lab results
As researchers…
• Diagnose the problem

• Specify statistical test
• Retrieve analysis
results
• Interpret analysis
results
Diagnosing a problem
• What are the questions to be

answered?
• What’s the analysis required
by the question?
• What is the nature of the data?
• For comparative analysis, how
many means are to be
compared?
Some notes on
measurement scales
Nominal/Ordinal
• No fundamental operation could
be performed
Interval
• “0” does not mean the absence of
the attribute being measured
Ratio
• “0” means absence of the attribute
Some notes on
measurement scales
You can “scale up” but

can’t “scale down”
- Interval/ratio to
nominal
- Interval/ratio to ordinal
- Ordinal to nominal
Common S-Tests
Examples
What is the average course Type of analysis

– Descriptive
grade of those students who
Nature of data
attended the review and
– Interval or ratio
those who did not?
Data analysis
– Mean
– SD
Examples (cont.)
Type of analysis
How many are pro or - Descriptive
against Nature of data
the merging of - Nominal
departments Data analysis
- Frequency distribution
when analyzed gender?
- Percentage distribution
Examples (cont.)
Do the average grade of Type of analysis

– Comparative
those
Nature of data
students who attended the – Interval or ratio
review significantly differ # of means compared
from – 2; coming from diff samples
Data analysis
those who did not attend?
– T-test for independent
samples
Examples (cont.)
Does the average grade of Type of analysis

– Comparative
students significantly
Nature of data
differ – Interval or ratio
before and after taking the # of groups compared
– 2; coming from same
review? samples
Data analysis
– T-test for dependent
samples
Examples (cont.)
Is there a significant Type of analysis

– Comparative
difference in the work
Nature of data
performance of – Interval or ratio
employees who are 5 # of groups compared
years or below, 6-10 – 3; coming from diff samples
years and 11 or more Data analysis
– ANOVA
years in the company?
Examples (cont.)
– Correlational
relationship between the
Nature of data
gender of the youth and – Nominal
their stand on abortion Data analysis
– Chi-square test of
issue? association
– Phi coefficient*
Note: The data on the variables being

related should come from the same
sample.
Examples (cont.)

– Correlational
relationship between Nature of data
grades of – Interval or ratio
Data analysis
the students and the salary
– Pearson r
of
their teachers?
Note: Remember the note...

Interpreting results:
p-value approach
• Alternative to classical
approach (tabular approach)
• Focus is on the probability
(p-value) that you would be
wrong if you reject the
hypothesis – not on the
computed and the standard
test statistic
p-value approach
• Generate the p-value of a

certain test
• Compare the p-value to
the level of significance
(usually 0.05)
p-value approach
• Decide over the H0
– If p-value is  to 0.05;
the result of the test is
significant; reject H0
– Do not reject H0, if
otherwise
• Connect with what others
have
Question 1
What is the average of grade of

those students who attended the
review and those who did not?
Results
• Who’s grades are relatively higher?

• Are these results similar to what others have
found out? or not?
Question 2
Do the average grade of those students who

attended the review significantly differ from
those who did not attend?
Results
• What do the numbers mean?

• Are these results similar to what others have
found out? or not?
Question 3
Is the work performance of the respondents

significantly related to their monthly salary
and number of working hours?
Results
Question 3
Is their a significant difference in work

performance of the respondents who
earned undergraduate, graduate and
post graduate degrees?
Results
• The performance of the 3 groups significantly differ.
• Reject H0
• But, is it the graduates with significantly diff. performance compared
to the undergraduates? Or is it the post graduates against the
undergraduates?
• Undergraduates vs. Graduates
• Undergraduates vs. Postgraduates
• Graduates vs. Postgraduates
• Graduates over the undergraduates
• Postgraduates over the undergraduates
• Postgraduates over the graduates

Data Analysis

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WHAT TO DO WHEN THE

Making sense out a set

• Diagnose the problem

• What are the questions to be

You can “scale up” but

What is the average course Type of analysis

Do the average grade of Type of analysis

Does the average grade of Type of analysis

Is there a significant Type of analysis

Note: The data on the variables being

Is there a significant Type of analysis

Note: Remember the note...

• Generate the p-value of a

What is the average of grade of

• Who’s grades are relatively higher?

Do the average grade of those students who

• What do the numbers mean?

Is the work performance of the respondents

Is their a significant difference in work

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