Lec 2 Satellite

Lec 2
Orbital Mechanics
1
Balancing the Force
For the satellite to stay in orbit, the forces must balance;

set FIN = FOUT , solve for the required speed v
v (velocity)
F2
(Inertial-Centrifugal
F1
Earth Force)
(Centripetal-
Gravitational
Force)
Orbital Plane
Concept of Force
• Force (F) = Mass(m) × Acceleration(a)
– m is the mass of the satellite

– Unit of Force is a Newton
– A Newton is the force required to accelerate 1 kg
by 1 m/s2
– Underlying units of a Newton are therefore (kg) × (m/s2)
3
Acceleration Inwards
aIN = acceleration due to gravity = μ / r2
• r = radius from center of earth to satellite

• μ = G * ME , is the Kepler’s Constant
μ = 3.9861352 × 105 km3/s2
• G = Universal Gravitational Constant
G = 6.672 × 10-11 Nm2/kg2
= 6.672 × 10-20 km3/(kg s2) (other units)
• ME = Mass of the earth
ME = 5.9733 × 1024 kg
Note: An object near the earth’s surface accelerates at a rate of 9.811 m/s2
4
Acceleration Outwards
aOUT = centrifugal acceleration = v2 / r
Where:
• r = radius from center of Earth to satellite
• v = speed component on a direction perpendicular to
rotation.
5
Forces on a Satellite
• Force inwards due to gravity (i.e.centripetal force) is:
FIN = m × (μ / r2) = m × (G ME / r2)
• Force outwards (i.e. centrifugal force):
FOUT = m × (v2 / r)
6
Balancing the Force
For the satellite to stay in orbit, the forces must balance;

set FIN = FOUT , solve for the required speed v
v = (μ / r)1/2
• If circular orbit:
v (velocity)
T = 2 π r/v F2
T = 2 π r3/2/ μ1/2 (Inertial-Centrifugal
F1
Earth Force)
(Centripetal-
Gravitational
Force)
Orbital Plane
Example Circular Orbits
Satellite Orbital Orbital Orbital

System Height Velocity Period
(km) (km/s) hr. min. sec.
INTELSAT 35,786.43 3.0747 23 56 4.091

ICO-Global 10,255 4.8954 48.4 55 5
Skybridge 1,469 7.1272 17.8 55 1
Iridium 780 7.4624 27.0 40 1
NOTE: Radius = orbital height + radius of the earth

Average radius of earth = 6,378.14 km
8
Orbit Limits
• There must be a balance between inward gravitational (centripetal)

forces and outward centrifugal forces
• Must not be too close to the earth as it will be slowed down by the
atmosphere
• Velocity must be in the right direction (parallel to earth surface).
9
Orbital Mechanics:
Kepler’s Laws
10
Coordinate System 1 – Earth Main Planes
11
Coordinate System 2 – Orbital Plane Coordinate System
12
Kepler’s Three Laws
• First Law: Orbit is an ellipse with the larger body (earth) at one
focus
• Second Law: The satellite sweeps out equal arcs in equal time
(NOTE: for an ellipse, this means that the orbital speed varies around
the orbit)
• Third Law: The square of the period of revolution equals a constant

× the third power of the semi-major axis of the ellipse
13
Review of Ellipse Geometry
• Points (-a,0) and (a,0) are the Vertices.

•Points (-c,0) and (c,0) are the foci.
•Line between the vertices is the major axis.
•a is the length of the semi-major axis.
•Line between (-b,0) and (b,0) is the minor axis.
•b is the length of the semi- minor axis.
Important Relationships:
a2 - b2 = c2
Area of ellipse: A = π a b 14
Kepler’s First Law: Elliptical Orbits
• First Law: Orbit is an ellipse with the larger body (earth) at one focus
15
Orbit Eccentricity
• If a = semi-major axis, b = semi-minor axis, and e = eccentricity of

the orbit ellipse, then
16
Kepler’s Second Law: Equal Area Arcs
• Second Law: The satellite sweeps out

equal arcs in equal time (NOTE: for an
ellipse, this means that the orbital speed
varies around the orbit)
• If t2 - t1 = t4 - t3, then A12 = A34
• Velocity of satellite is slowest at

apogee and fastest at perigee
17
Kepler’s Third Law: Orbital Period
• Third Law: The square of the period of revolution equals a

constant × the third power of the semi-major axis of the ellipse
• Orbital period and the Ellipse are related by:
The mean distance is equal to the semimajor axis a. For the

artificial satellites orbiting the earth, Kepler’s third law can be
written in the form
n is the mean motion of the satellite in radians per second

18
 The orbital period in seconds is given by
Example (1):
Calculate the radius of a circular orbit for which the period

is 1 day.
Dr. Hatem ZAKARIA, 2015 19

Solution
Dr. Hatem ZAKARIA, 2015 20

Solar vs. Sidereal Day -1
• A sidereal day is the time between consecutive crossings

of any particular longitude on the earth with reference to inertial
space (or it’s own axis); I.e., in practice, with reference to any star
other than the sun. This corresponds to a 360 degree rotation.
• A solar day is the time between consecutive crossings of

any particular longitude of the earth by the sun-earth axis. This
corresponds to more than 360 degrees.
– Solar day = EXACTLY 24 hrs
– Sidereal day = 23 h 56 min. 4.091 s
• Why the difference?
21
Solar vs. Sidereal Day - 2
• Why the difference?

– By the time the Earth completes a full rotation with respect to an
external point (not the sun), it has already moved its center
position with respect to the sun.
– The extra time it takes to cross the sun-earth axis, averaged over
4 full years (because every 4 years one has 366 days) is of about
3.93 minutes per day.
22
23
Numerical Calculation:
• 4 years = 1461 solar days (365*4 +1)
• 4 years : earth moves 1440 degrees (4*360) around sun.
• 1 solar day: earth moves 0.98 degrees (=1440/1461) around sun
• 1 solar day : earth moves 360.98 degress around itself (360 +

0.98)
• 1 sidereal day = earth moves 360 degrees around itself
• 1 solar day = 24hrs = 1440 minutes
• 1 sidereal day = 1436.7 minutes (1440*360/360.98) 24

Difference = 3.93 minutes
Numerical Example 1: The GEO Orbit
Problem: Calculate radius and height of GEO orbit given that

Sidereal Day = 23 hrs 56 min 4.1 sec
Solution:
• T2 = (4 π2 a3) / μ (Kepler’s Third Law)
• Rearrange to a3 = T2 μ /(4 π2)
• T = 86,164.1 sec
• a3 = (86,164.1) 2 x 3.986004418 x 105 /(4 π2)
• a = 42,164.172 km = orbit radius
• h = orbit radius – earth radius = 42,164.172 – 6378.14
= 35,786.03 km
25
Numerical Example 2:
Problem: Considering the Space shuttle circular orbit

(height , h = 250 km), and Earth radius = 6378 km, obtain:
a. Orbital period
b. Average linear velocity
Solution:
a) r = (re + h) = 6378 + 250 = 6628 km
T2 = (4 π2 a3) / μ = 4 π2 × (6628)3 / 3.986004418 × 105 s2
= 2.8838287 × 107 s2
T = 5370.13 s = 89 mins 30.13 secs
b) The circumference of the orbit is 2πa = 41,644.95 km
v = 2πa / T = 41,644.95 / 5370.13 = 7.755 km/s
Alternatively: v = (μ/r)2. =7.755 km/s.
26

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Lec 2

For the satellite to stay in orbit, the forces must balance;

• Force (F) = Mass(m) × Acceleration(a)

– m is the mass of the satellite

aIN = acceleration due to gravity = μ / r2

• r = radius from center of earth to satellite

aOUT = centrifugal acceleration = v2 / r

• Force inwards due to gravity (i.e.centripetal force) is:

FIN = m × (μ / r2) = m × (G ME / r2)

• Force outwards (i.e. centrifugal force):

For the satellite to stay in orbit, the forces must balance;

Satellite Orbital Orbital Orbital

INTELSAT 35,786.43 3.0747 23 56 4.091

NOTE: Radius = orbital height + radius of the earth

• There must be a balance between inward gravitational (centripetal)

• Velocity must be in the right direction (parallel to earth surface).

• Third Law: The square of the period of revolution equals a constant

• Points (-a,0) and (a,0) are the Vertices.

• If a = semi-major axis, b = semi-minor axis, and e = eccentricity of

• Second Law: The satellite sweeps out

• If t2 - t1 = t4 - t3, then A12 = A34

• Velocity of satellite is slowest at

• Third Law: The square of the period of revolution equals a

The mean distance is equal to the semimajor axis a. For the

n is the mean motion of the satellite in radians per second

 The orbital period in seconds is given by

Calculate the radius of a circular orbit for which the period

Dr. Hatem ZAKARIA, 2015 19

Dr. Hatem ZAKARIA, 2015 20

• A sidereal day is the time between consecutive crossings

• A solar day is the time between consecutive crossings of

• Why the difference?

• Why the difference?

• 4 years = 1461 solar days (365*4 +1)

• 4 years : earth moves 1440 degrees (4*360) around sun.

• 1 solar day: earth moves 0.98 degrees (=1440/1461) around sun

• 1 solar day : earth moves 360.98 degress around itself (360 +

• 1 sidereal day = earth moves 360 degrees around itself

• 1 solar day = 24hrs = 1440 minutes

• 1 sidereal day = 1436.7 minutes (1440*360/360.98) 24

Problem: Calculate radius and height of GEO orbit given that

Problem: Considering the Space shuttle circular orbit

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