THE PRESENTATION CONSISTS OF THE TOPICS LISTED BELOW,

(i) Techniques of applied Instruction;

(ii) Assessment of student performance in those subjects in which
ground instruction is given;
(iii) The learning process;
(iv) Elements of effective teaching;
(v) Student evaluation and testing, training philosophies;
(vi) Training programme development;
(vii) Lesson planning;
(viii) Classroom instructional techniques;
(ix) Use of training aids, including flight simulation training devices
as appropriate;
(x) Analysis and correction of student errors;
(xi) Human performance relevant to flight instruction including
principles of threat and error management;
(xii) Hazards involved in simulating system failure and malfunctions
in the aircraft.
 TECHNIQUES OF APPLIED INSTRUCTION

A key component of the flight instructor’s job is providing the learner with the tools to ensure safety during a
flight. What does “safety” really mean? How can a flight instructor ensure the safety of flight training
activities, and also train clients to operate their aircraft safely after they leave the relatively protected flight
training environment?

Flight instructors should produce safe pilots. For that reason, instructors should encourage each learner to
learn as much as possible.
TECHNIQUES OF TEACHING ?

The actual moment to moment practices and behaviour that operate in teaching a language
according to a particular method.

The method of doing a task or performing something.

According to one definition, safety is the freedom from conditions that can cause death, injury, or
illness; damage to loss of equipment or property, or damage to the environment.
 PRACTICAL FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR STRATEGIES

During all phases of flight training, instructors should remember that individuals learn through observing others;
therefore, the instructor needs to model safe and professional behavior. The flight instructor should demonstrate
good operational sense at all times:
⦁ Before the flight—discuss safety and the importance of a proper preflight and use of the checklist.
⦁ During flight—prioritize the tasks of aviating, navigating, and communicating. Instill importance of aircraft control,
“see and avoid,” situational awareness, and workload management in the learner.
⦁ During landing—conduct stabilized approaches, maintain desired airspeed on final, demonstrate good judgment
for go-arounds, wake turbulence, traffic, and terrain avoidance. Correct faulty approaches and landings. Make
touchdowns on the centerline in the first third of the runway.
⦁ After the flight—review or discuss flight events and choices using ADM principles. Plan a remediation if trends
indicate an inadequate skill, a hazardous attitude, or inadequate knowledge of risk mitigation.
INTEGRATING INSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES

A flight instructor uses many instructional techniques during ground instruction, when using simulation,
and during hands-on aircraft training. Since flight training costs are high and new aircraft are more
complex than in the past, the total training experience should provide a solid base of knowledge and
maximize the learner’s time without sacrificing the quality of the end product.
GROUND INSTRUCTION

Ground instruction can be highly effective if it follows an overall plan designed to prepare the learner for flight.

Ground training objectives should be related to flight training objectives whenever possible.

When elements are taught on the ground (as theory), their practice and application is also experienced in the
air. The instructor should point out the connection between the theory and practice to maximize the benefit
from integrated ground and flight instruction.

ground instruction need not be in the classroom for maximum effectiveness. For example, conduct a preflight
using an actual aircraft although initially taught in an academic setting.
ON AIRCRAFT TRAINING:

On-aircraft training is the continuation of work that is initiated on the ground and part of the integrated
training process. Planning Instructional Activity, the instructor must plan the flight given to the learner
to the same extent as the learner who prepares for it. Just as it is important to have objectives for
ground instruction, it is equally important that the flight instruction have objectives and a syllabus
paired with previous instruction given on the ground (to include academic training). Flight training is not
a one size fits all and often must be tailored for the individual. For example, satisfactory progress in
learning stalls through flight instruction “only” would be diminished as compared to discussing them on
the ground; inclusive of the types, stalls, and their aerodynamic basis. Just because the learner has
received ground school instruction on a particular aspect, the instructor should always review that same
task with the learner before flight to reinforce the learning process as necessary.
 DEMONSTRATION- PERFORMANCE METHOD

1. EXPLANATION .

2.DEMONSTRATION.

3. LEARNER PERFORMANCE WITH INSTRUCTOR SUPERVISION.

4. EVALUATION.
EXPLANATION PHASE

The explanation phase is accomplished prior to the flight lesson with a discussion of lesson objectives
and completion standards, as well as a thorough preflight briefing. The instructor presents clear and
pertinent objectives of the particular lesson to be presented, based on the known experience and
knowledge of the learner. Instructors need to provide details on the lesson content, performance
expectations and evaluation measures. When teaching a skill, the instructor conveys the precise
actions the learner will perform.
DEMONSTRATION PHASE

The instructor demonstrates the actions necessary to perform a skill and may describe the actions
simultaneously. The instructor avoids extraneous activity as much as possible so that learners get a clear
understanding of the task. If, due to some unanticipated circumstances, the demonstration does not
closely conform to the explanation, this deviation should be immediately acknowledged and explained.
LEARNER PERFORMANCE AND INSTRUCTION SUPERVISION PHASE

Learner performance requires learners to act and do. To gain skills, learners must practice. The instructor must,
therefore, allot enough time for meaningful activity. Through doing, learners can follow correct procedures and
reach established standards. It is important that learners be given an opportunity to perform the skill as soon as
possible after a demonstration.
EVALUATION PHASE

In this phase, the instructor traditionally evaluates learner performance, records the learner’s
performance, and verbally advises the learner of the progress made toward the objectives.
 IMPORTANCE OF PERSONAL MINIMUMS

* Importance of having personal minimums

*Teaching the students on the importance of having their own

personal minimums.

The instructor’s decision to help The student develop personal weather

minimums reflects a key component of the flight instructor’s job: providing
the learner with the tools to ensure safety during a flight.
 THE TELLING AND DOING TECHNIQUE.

TRADITIONAL TEACHING DEMONSTRATION- TELLING AND DOING

PROCESS PERFORMANCE METHOD TECHNIQUE.

Preparation Explanation Preparation

Presentation Demonstration Instructor tells instructor does

Learner tells, Instructor does.

Application Learner performance Learner tells learner does

supervision

Review and evaluation Evaluation Learner tells instructor

evaluates
 POSITIVE EXCHANGE OF FLIGHT CONTROLS

Positive exchange of flight controls is an integral part of flight training. It is especially critical during the demonstration-
performance method of flight instruction. Due to the importance of this subject, the following discussion provides
guidance on the recommended procedure to use for the positive exchange of flight controls between pilots when
operating an aircraft.

communication or misunderstanding regarding who had actual

control of the aircraft
A positive three-step process in the exchange of flight controls between pilots is a proven procedure
and one that is strongly recommended.

YOU HAVE FLIGHT CONTROLS

I HAVE FLIGHT CONTROLS

YOU HAVE FLIGHT CONTROLS

STERILE COCKPIT RULES

A series of aircraft accidents caused by flight crews who were distracted from their flight duties during
critical phases of the flight and hence, it has become an importance to maintain sterile cockpit in all
critical phases of flight.
USE OF DISTRACTION WHILE TRAINING THE LEARNER

most stall/spin accidents occurs when the pilot’s attention is diverted from the primary task of flying the aircraft. Sixty
percent of stall/spin accidents occurred during takeoff and landing, and twenty percent were preceded by engine
failure. Preoccupation inside or outside the flight deck while changing aircraft configuration or trim, maneuvering to
avoid other traffic, or clearing hazardous obstacles during takeoff and climb could create a potential stall/spin
situation. The intentional practice of stalls and spins seldom resulted in an accident. The real danger was inadvertent
stalls induced by distractions during routine flight situations.

METHODS THAT CAN BE USED TO DISTRACT A TRAINEE ?

INTRODUCTION

Assessment is an essential component of teaching and learning, and it provides the instructor with immediate
feedback on the quality of instruction. Instructors continuously evaluate a learner’s performance in order to provide
guidance, suggestions for improvement, and positive reinforcement.
In order to provide direction and raise the learner’s level of performance, assessment needs to be factual, and
it should align with the completion standards of the lesson. An effective assessment displays the
characteristics;
OBJECTIVE

The personal opinions, likes, dislikes, or biases of the instructor might affect an assessment. A conflict of
personalities can alter an opinion. Sympathy or over-identification with a learner, to such a degree that it
influences objectivity, is known as “halo error.” To what extent does effective assessment need to focus on
objectivity and actual learner performance? If an assessment is to be effective, it needs to be honest; and it must
be based on the facts of the performance as they were, not as they could have been.
 FLEXIBLE

The instructor should evaluate the entire performance of a learner in the context in which it is accomplished.
Sometimes a good learner turns in a poor performance, and a poor learner turns in a good one. A friendly
learner may suddenly become hostile, or a hostile learner may suddenly become friendly and cooperative. The
instructor fits the tone, technique, and content of the assessment to the occasion, as well as to the learner. An
assessment should be designed and executed so that the instructor can allow for variables. The ongoing
challenge for the instructor is deciding what to say, what to omit, what to stress, and what to minimize at the
proper moment.
 ACCEPTABLE

Consider that learners do not like negative feedback. What makes an honest assessment acceptable to the
learner? A certificate or credential alone rarely suffices. Learners need to have confidence in the instructor’s
qualifications, teaching ability, sincerity, competence, and authority. Usually, instructors have the opportunity
to establish themselves with learners before the formal assessment arises. If not, however, the instructor’s
manner, attitude, and familiarity with the subject at hand serves this purpose. Assessments presented fairly,
with authority, conviction, sincerity, and from a position of recognizable competence tend to work well.
COMPREHENSIVE

A comprehensive assessment is not necessarily a long one, nor need it treat every aspect of the performance in
detail. While it includes strengths as well as weaknesses, the degree of coverage of each should fit the situation.
The instructor might report what most needs improvement, or only what the learner can reasonably be
expected to improve. The instructor decides whether the greater benefit comes from a discussion of a few
major points or a number of minor points.
CONSTRUCTIVE

An assessment is pointless unless the learner benefits from it. Praise can capitalize on things that are done well
and inspire the learner to improve in areas of lesser accomplishment. When identifying a mistake or weakness,
the instructor needs to give positive guidance for correction. Praise for its own sake or negative comments that
do not point toward improvement or a higher level of performance should be omitted from an assessment
altogether.
ORGANIZED

An assessment must be organized. Almost any pattern is acceptable, as long as it is logical and makes
sense to the learner. An effective organizational pattern might be the sequence of the performance itself.
Sometimes an assessment can begin at the point at which a demonstration failed, and work backward
through the steps that led to the failure. A success can be analyzed in similar fashion. Alternatively, a
glaring deficiency can serve as the core of an assessment. Breaking the whole into parts, or building the
parts into a whole, is another possible organizational approach.
THOUGHTFUL

An effective assessment reflects the instructor’s thoughtfulness toward the learner’s need for self-esteem,
recognition, and approval. The instructor refrains from minimizing the inherent dignity and importance of
the individual. Ridicule, anger, or fun at the expense of the learner has no place in assessment. While being
straightforward and honest, the instructor should always respect the learner’s personal feelings. For
example, the instructor should try to deliver criticism in private.
 SPECIFIC

The instructor’s comments and recommendations should be specific. Learners cannot act on recommendations
unless they know specifically what the recommendations are. A statement such as, “Your second weld wasn’t as
good as your first,” has little constructive value. Instead, the instructor should say why it was not as good and offer
suggestions on how to improve the weld. If the instructor has a clear, well-founded, and supportable idea in mind,
it should be expressed with firmness and authority, and in terms that cannot be misunderstood. At the conclusion
of an assessment, learners should have no doubt about what they did well and what they did poorly and, most
importantly, specifically how they can improve.
WHAT IS LEARNING ?

The process of acquiring knowledge or skill through study, experience, or teaching.

Gaining knowledge or skills, or developing a behavior, through study, instruction, or

experience.
LEARNING THEORY

Learning theory is a body of principles advocated by psychologists and educators to explain how people
acquire skills, knowledge, and attitudes.
WHAT ARE THE WAYS LEARNERS LEARN?
ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE

Part of an aviation instructor’s job is helping students acquire knowledge. In this context, knowledge refers to
information that humans are consciously aware of and can articulate.

AND WHAT ARE THE WAYS TO DO SO?

MEMORIZATION

UNDERSTANDING

CONCEPT LEARNING
 DOMAINS OF LEARNING

PSYCHOMOTOR
COGNITIVE AFFECTIVE (Doing)
(Thinking) (Feeling)
To help students acquire knowledge, the instructor should:

• Ask students to recite or practice newly acquired knowledge.

• Ask questions that probe student understanding and prompt them to think about what they have learned
in different ways.
• Present opportunities for students to apply what they know to solving problems or making decisions.
• Present students with problems and decisions that test the limits of their knowledge.
• Demonstrate the benefits of understanding and being able to apply knowledge.
• Introduce new topics as they support the objectives of the lesson, whenever possible.
COMMUNICATION

Communication takes place when one person transmits ideas or feelings to another person or group of people. The
effectiveness of the communication is measured by the similarity between the idea transmitted and the idea received.
The process of communication is composed of three elements:

*Source (sender, speaker, writer, encoder, transmitter, or instructor)

*Symbols used in composing and transmitting the message

*Receiver (listener, reader, decoder, or student)

SOURCE OF COMMUNICATION

As indicated, the source in communication is the sender, speaker, writer, encoder, transmitter, or instructor. The
effectiveness of persons acting in the role of communicators is related to at least three basic factors.

First, their ability to select and use language is essential for transmitting symbols that are meaningful to listeners
and readers.

Second, communicators consciously or unconsciously reveal attitudes toward themselves as a communicator,

toward the ideas being communicated, and toward the receivers. These attitudes must be positive while delivering
the message if they are to communicate effectively. Communicators must be confident; they should illustrate that
the message is important and that the receiver has a need to know the ideas presented.

Third, communicators are more likely to be successful when they speak or write from accurate, up-to-date, and
stimulating material. Communicators must constantly strive to have the most current and interesting information
possible. In this way, the receiver’s interest can be held.
SYMBOLS

At its basic level, communication is achieved through symbols, which are simple oral and visual codes. The words in
the vocabulary constitute a basic code.
RECEIVER

The receiver is the listener, reader, decoder, or student—the individual or individuals to whom the message is
directed. Effective communicators should always keep in mind that communication succeeds only in relation to the
reaction of their receivers. When the receiver reacts with understanding and changes his or her behavior according
to the intent of the source, effective communication has taken place.
STUDENT EVALUATION

The instructor must evaluate the entire performance of a student in the context in which it is accomplished.
Sometimes a good student turns in a poor performance, and a poor student turns in a good one. A friendly student
may suddenly become hostile, or a hostile student may suddenly become friendly and cooperative. The instructor
must fit the tone, technique, and content of the assessment to the occasion, as well as to the student. An
assessment should be designed and executed so that the instructor can allow for variables. The ongoing challenge
for the instructor is deciding what to say, what to omit, what to stress, and what to minimize at the proper moment.

The effective assessment is objective, and focused on student performance. It should not reflect the personal
opinions, likes, dislikes, or biases of the instructor. Instructors must not permit judgment of student performance
to be influenced by their personal views of the student, favorable or unfavorable. Sympathy or over-identification
with a student, to such a degree that it influences objectivity, is known as “halo error.” A conflict of personalities
can also distort an opinion. If an assessment is to be objective, it must be honest; it must be based on the
performance as it was, not as it could have been.
Tests of this nature do have a place in the assessment hierarchy. Multiple choice, supply type, and other such tests are
useful in assessing the student’s grasp of information, concepts, terms, processes, and rules—factual knowledge that
forms the foundation needed for the student to advance to higher levels of learning.
EFFECTIVE ASSESSMENT METHODS

When deciding how to assess student progress, aviation instructors can follow a four-step process.

• First, determine level-of-learning objectives.

• Second, list indicators of desired behaviors.
• Third, establish criterion objectives.
• Fourth, develop criterion-referenced test items.
ORAL ASSESSMENT

The most common means of assessment is direct or indirect oral questioning of students by the instructor.
Questions may be loosely classified as fact questions and HOTS questions. The answer to a fact question is
based on memory or recall. This type of question usually concerns who, what, when, and where. HOTS
questions involve why or how, and require the student to combine knowledge of facts with an ability to
analyze situations, solve problems, and arrive at conclusions. Proper quizzing by the instructor can have a
number of desirable results:

• Reveals the effectiveness of the instructor’s training methods

• Checks student retention of what has been learned
• Reviews material already presented to the student
• Can be used to retain student interest and stimulate thinking
• Emphasizes the important points of training• Identifies points that need more emphasis
• Checks student comprehension of what has been learned
• Promotes active student participation, which is important to effective learning
ANSWERING STUDENTS QUESTIONS:-

Tips for responding effectively to student questions, especially in a classroom setting:

• Be sure that you clearly understand the question before attempting to answer.
• Display interest in the student’s question and frame an answer that is as direct and accurate as
possible.
• After responding, determine whether or not the student is satisfied with the answer.
DEFINITION OF HUMAN BEHAVIOUR

The study of human behavior is an attempt to explain how and why humans function the way they do. A complex
topic, human behavior is a product both of innate human nature and of individual experience and environment.
Definitions of human behavior abound, depending on the field of study. In the scientific world, human behavior is
seen as the product of factors that cause people to act in predictable ways.

Human behavior is also defined as the result of attempts to satisfy certain needs. These needs may be simple to
understand and easy to identify, such as the need for food and water. They also may be complex, such as the need for
respect and acceptance. A working knowledge of human behavior can help an instructor better understand a student.
It is also helpful to remember that to a large extent thoughts, feelings, and behavior are shared by all men or women,
despite seemingly large cultural differences. For example, fear causes humans to either fight or flee. In the public
speaking example above, one person may “flee” by not fulfilling the obligation. The other person may “fight” by
learning techniques to deal with fear.
INSTRUCTOR AND STUDENT RELATIONSHIP

How does personality type testing affect instructors and students? Research has led many educational psychologists
to feel that based on personality type, everyone also has an individual style of learning. In this theory, working with
that style, rather than against it, benefits both instructor and student. Although controversy often swirls around the
educational benefits of teaching students according to personality types, it has gained a large following and been
implemented at many levels of education. Today’s student can visit any number of websites, take a personality test,
and discover what type of student he or she is and how best to study.

Not only does personality type influence how one learns, it also influences how one teaches. Learning one’s
personality type helps an instructor recognize how he or she instructs. Why is it important to recognize personal
instruction style? The match or mismatch between the way an instructor teaches and the way a student learns
contributes to student satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Students whose learning styles are compatible with the
teaching styles of an instructor tend to retain information longer, apply it more effectively, learn more, and have a
more positive attitude toward the course in general. Although an instructor cannot change his or her preferred style
of teaching to match a learning style, steps can be taken to actively bridge the differences.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.
STUDENTS EMOTIONAL REACTION

While it is not necessary for a flight instructor to be a certified psychologist, it is helpful to learn how to
analyze student behavior before and during each flight lesson. This ability helps a flight instructor develop
and use appropriate techniques for instruction.
ANXITY OF A LEARNER

Anxiety is probably the most significant psychological factor affecting flight instruction.
This is true because flying is a potentially threatening experience for those who are not
accustomed to flying and the fear of falling is universal in human beings. Anxiety also is
a factor in maintenance training because lives may depend on consistently doing the job
right the first time. The following paragraphs are primarily concerned with flight
instruction and student reactions.