UNIT ONE

INTRODUCTION
 THE NATURE AND USES OF HISTORY

The term history derived from the Greek word Istoria, which meant
 “inquiry” or “an account of one’s inquiries”

 The first use of the term is accredited/attributed to one of the ancient

Greek historians, Herodotus (c. 484–c. 420 B.C.E.), who is often held to
be the “father of written history.”
 Nature


In ordinary usage, history means all the things that have happened in the human past.
the distinction is between what actually happened in the past or that part which exists
independently of the historian and still awaits to be recorded and the accounts of the past
provided by historians, that is, ‘history’.


Academically, it is an organized and systematic study of the past. The study involves the discovery,
collection, organization, and presentation of information about past events.

It is the period after the development of complex social and political organizations along with the
invention of writing


It studies the interaction between humans and their environment in the past within the
framework of the continuous process of change taking place in time.

It studies about change and continuities.
 Uses
 History Helps Us Better Understand the Present

 History Provides Us a Sense of Our Own Identity

 History Provides the Basic Background for Many Other Disciplines

 History Teaches Critical Skills

 History Helps Develop Tolerance and Open-Mindedness

 History Supplies Endless Source of Fascination

 History helps us to do not repeat past mistakes

 Sources and Methods of Historical Study
Sources are key to the study and writing of history. Historical sources are
broadly classified into two types
1. Primary sources
 These are surviving traces of the past available to us in the present

 They are original or first hand

 Manuscripts, diaries, letters, minutes, court and administrative files, travel

documents, photographs, maps, video and audiovisual materials and physical
remains or relics/artifacts such as coins, fossils, weapons, utensils, and buildings.
 Primary sources have to be verified for their originality and authenticity
because sometimes primary sources like letters may be forged
2. Secondary sources
 They are second-hand published accounts about past events
 articles, books, textbooks, biographies, and published stories or movies
about historical events

 They are written long after the event has occurred, provide an
interpretation of what happened, why it happened, and how it happened

 Give us what appear to be finished accounts of certain historical

periods and phenomena. no history work can be taken as final
 They have to be examined for the reliability of their reconstructions.
Oral sources
 They are indispensable to study and document the history of non-
literate societies; can also be used to fill missing gaps and
corroborate written words.

 Oral History is oral testimonies or personal recollections of lived

experience
 Oral information that passes from one generation to another without
being recorded (folk songs and folk sayings) is known Oral tradition.

 An oral tradition may lose its originality and authenticity due to

Omission, Exaggeration and distortion
 historians use a combination of the sources described above.
 Historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn

Historiography is the history of historical accounts/writing.

It studies how knowledge of the past, either recent or distant, is

obtained and transmitted.
The organized study and narration of the past was introduced by
 Herodotus (c. 484–c. 425 B.C.E.)

 Thucydides (d. c. 455-400 B.C.E.)

 Sima Qian-a Han Dynasty figure (145– 86 B.C.E.)
Despite such early historiographical traditions, history emerged as an
academic discipline in the second half of the nineteenth century first
in Europe and subsequently in other parts of the world including the US.

 A German Leopold Von Ranke (1795–1886), and his colleagues

established history as an independent discipline in Berlin (Bonn)
with its own set of methods and concepts by which historians
 collect evidence of past events, evaluate that evidence, and present a
meaningful discussion of the subject

He is considered as the “father of modern historiography” due to his

greatest contribution to the scientific study of the past.
 Earlier forms of historiography (historical writing) in Eth & the
Horn
The earliest known reference to the history of Ethiopia and the Horn
 The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea
 It was written 1st century A.D by an unknown/anonymous author.

 Christian Topography
 It describes Aksum’s trade and the then Aksumite king’s campaigns on both
sides of the sea.
 It was composed by Cosmas Indicopleustes, a Greek sailor, in the sixth
century A.D.
Inscriptions aside, the earliest written Ethiopian material dates from
the seventh century A.D.
 Abba Gerima monastery in Yeha.

A Manuscript
 It was found in Haiq Istifanos monastery of Wollo in 13th century A.D

 though their value is essentially religious, they have the benefit of

providing insights into the country’s past and added value for
historians

 They contain the list of medieval kings and their history in brief.
Some Parchment manuscript books within the museum show case
which one put over the other. Photograph by Getnet Z (2017)
Hagiographies
 are largest groups of sources available for medieval Ethiopian history,
originate from EOC; Invariably written in Ge’ez; enhancing the prestige of
saints.

 discussed the development of the church and the state including territorial
conquests by reigning monarchs
 A parallel hagiographical tradition of Muslim saint also existed
 Shaykh Ja’far Bukko of Gattira in the late 19th century Wollo
 Besides the saint’s life, the document discussed:
 the development of indigenous Islam and contacts between the region’s
Muslim community and the outside world
Chronicles (indigenous tradition of history writing)
 First appeared in the 14th century in ge’ez tongue and continued in
Amharic into the early 20th C.
 Of such surviving documents, the earliest is the Glorious Victories
of Amde-Tsion and the last is the Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and
Empress Zewditu.
 Chronicles incorporate both legends and facts-past and contemporary about the
monarch’s genealogy, upbringing military exploits, piety, and statesmanship.
 They are known for their factual detail and strong chronological framework
(require considerable labor..)
chronicles explain historical events mainly in religious terms;
and offer little by way of social and economic developments
However, in conjunction with other varieties of written
documents, such as hagiographies and travel accounts by
foreign observers, chronicles provide us a glimpse into:
 the character and lives of kings,
their preoccupations, and relations with subordinate
officials and
 the evolution of the Ethiopian state and society
(inadequately)
Written accounts of Arabic-speaking visitors to the coast
 provide useful information on various aspects of the region’s history

 al-Masudi and Ibn Battuta described the culture, language, and

import-export trade in the main central region of the east African
coast in the tenth and in the fourteenth centuries respectively.

There are two documents composed by Yemeni writers for the 16th
and 17th c
1. Futuh al Habesha
2. Not mentioned
Futuh al Habesha (The Conquest of Abyssinia)
 An eye witness accounts in 16th century
 It was composed by Shihab al-Din, recorded the conflict between the
Christian kingdom and the Muslim principalities in the 16th c

 Besides the operation of the war including the conquest of northern

and central Ethiopia by Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, the
document describes major towns and their inhabitants in the
southeastern part of Ethiopia.
 Its discussion shortly/abruptly ended in 1535
Al-Haymi
 An eye witness accounts in 17th c
 led a Yemeni delegation in 1647 to the court of Fasiledes (r. 1632- 67)

Aba Bahrey’s Geez script on the History of the Oromo

 It was written in the 1593

 This document provides us firsthand information about the Oromo population movement
including the Gadaa System in the stated period
European Missionaries and travelers had a significant contribution to the development of
Ethiopian historiography.
 From the early sixteenth until the late nineteenth centuries, missionaries (Catholics and
Protestants) came to the country with the intention of staying, but they maintained intimate
links with Europe.
 missionaries’ sources provide us with valuable information covering a considerable period
Some missionary sources covered religious and political developments within Ethiopia,
and the country’s foreign relations.
 The Prester John of the Indies-composed by a Portuguese priest, F. Alvarez

One example of travel documents is James Bruce’s Travels to Discover the Source of the
Nile.
both the missionaries and travelers’ materials can only be used with considerable
reservations and with care for they are socially and politically biased.
Foreign writers: A German, Hiob Ludolf (l.1624-1704), were the founder of Ethiopian
studies in Europe in the seventeenth century.
He wrote Historia Aethiopica (A New History of Ethiopia).

Ludolf never visited Ethiopia; he wrote the country’s history largly based on information he
collected from an Ethiopian priest named Abba Gorgorios (Aba Gregory) who was in
Europe at that time.
August Dillman published two studies on ancient Ethiopian history
in the 19th c, which demonstrated all marks of objectivity.
 Historical writing made some departures from the chronicle
tradition in the early 20th c. traditional Ethiopian writer were
emerged and
Traditional Ethiopian writers
 They made conscious efforts to distance themselves from chroniclers
whom they criticized for adulatory tone when writing about monarchs.
 They discussed a range of topics from social justice, administrative
reform, and economic analysis to history
The earliest group of these writers includes
 Aleqa Taye Gebre-Mariam
 Yeityopia Hizb Tarik (The History of Ethiopian People)

 Aleqa Asme Giorgis

 Ye Oromo Tarik (The History of the Oromo)

 Onesmus Nasib
 (Aba Gemechis translated the Bible into his native tongue, Afan
Oromo)

Debtera Fisseha-Giorgis Abyezgi-the history of Ethiopia

Negadrases Afework Gebre-Iyesus
wrote the first Amharic novel, Tobiya, and
Gebre-Hiwot Baykedagn
Atse Menilekna Ityopia (Emperor Menilek and Ethiopia) and Mengistna Yehizb Astedader
(Government and Public Administration)
Blatten Geta Hiruy Wolde-Selassie
The most prolific writer of the early 20th c Ethiopia
He published four major works namely Ethiopiana Metema (Ethiopia and Metema), Wazema
(Eve), Yehiwot Tarik (A Biographical Dictionary), and Yeityopia Tarik (The History of Ethiopia).
Gebre-Hiwot and Hiruy exhibited relative objectivity and methodological sophistication
Italian occupation- interrupted the early experiment in modern history writing and publications.
Tekle-Tsadik Mekuria
 He formed a bridge between writers in pre-1935 and Ethiopia professional
historians who came after him.
 He has published some eight historical works
 He made a better evaluation of his sources than his predecessors

Yilma Deressa
 Ye Ityopiya Tarik Be’asra Sidistegnaw Kifle Zemen (A History of Ethiopia in
the 16th c)
 The A History of Ethiopia in His book addresses the Oromo population
movement and the wars between the Christian Kingdom and the
Muslim principalities as its main subjects
Blatten Geta Mahteme Selassie Wolde-Meskel
 He wrote Zikre Neger (Things Remembered)- a comprehensive account of
Ethiopia’s prewar land tenure systems and taxation
 His work fails to capture localized circumstances, responses, and conflicts
and silent on the actual impacts of government legislation on regulating
access to resource control.

Gebre-Wold Engidawork- Yaityopya Maretna Geber Sem (Ethiopia’s

Traditional System of Land Tenure and Taxation) about land tenure
Dejazmach Kebede Tesema- wrote his memoir of the imperial period,
published as Yetarik Mastawesha in 1962 E.C.
The 1960s was a crucial decade in the development of Ethiopian historiography for it
was in this period that history emerged as an academic discipline.
The pursuit of historical studies as a full-time occupation began with the opening of the
Department of History at the then Haile Selassie I University (HSIU).

production of BA these- began towards the end of 1960s, MA & PHD program launched
in 1979 and 1990 respectively

The Institute of Ethiopian Studies (IES), founded in 1963, is the other institutional home
of professional historiography in Ethiopia.

the Institute housed a number of historians of whom the late Richard Pankhurst, the first
Director and founding member of the Institute is worthy of note here.
 He has authored or co-authored twenty-two books and produced several hundred
articles on Ethiopia
the IES has been publishing the Journal of Ethiopian Studies for the
dissemination of historical research
The IES library contains literary works of diverse disciplines and has its
fair share in the evolution and development of professional
historiography in Ethiopia.
 The professionalization of history in other parts of the Horn is a post-
colonial phenomenon

 stimulated by reactions to decades of education in an alien imperial

 The decolonization of African historiography required new

methodological approach
European intellectuals’ own discomfort with the Euro-centrism of previous
scholarship provided for the intensive academic study of African history
the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS) in London and the
Department of History at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.
Francophone scholars

African historiography has not been the sole creation of interested

Europeans
African universities have trained their own scholars and sent many others
overseas for training who eventually published numerous works on
different aspects of the region’s history.
 The Geographical Context
“Ethiopia and the Horn”-contains the present day countries of Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and
Somalia.
The region consists chiefly of mountains uplifted through the formation of the Great Rift Valley-a
fissure in the Earth’s crust running down from Syria to Mozambique and marking the separation of the
African and Arabian tectonic plates.
 The major physiographic features of the region are a massive highland complex of mountains and
plateaus divided by the Great Rift Valley and surrounded by lowlands, semi-desert, deserts and
tropical forests along the periphery.
The diversity of the terrain led to regional variations
 people across the region are remarkably diverse, but they were never isolated and the regions share
common past.
The history of Ethiopia and the Horn has been shaped by contacts with others
Spatial location in relationship to other spaces and locations in the world is one geographical factor
that has significant bearing on the ways in which history unfolds
 Another element of geographical factor that had profound impact on human
history is drainage system. (Nile River, Gibe/Omo-Gojeb, Genale/Jubba-Shebele,
the Awash River, and the Ethiopian Rift Valley Lake systems).
 The above watersheds are very important in the life and history of the peoples
inhabiting the region.

 studying the drainage systems of Ethiopia and the Horn is crucial for proper
understanding of the relationships of the peoples living within the river basins
mentioned previously.

 Ethiopia and the Horn can be divided into three major distinct environmental
zones
 The vast Eastern lowland, The West, and Further to the west
 The countries of the Horn of Africa are linguistically and ethnically linked
together as far back as recorded history goes.
Thank You!
 UNIT TWO
PEOPLES AND CULTURES IN
ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
 CONTENTS OF THE UNIT
I. Human evolution and Neolithic Revolution and
II. The languages and peoples settlement along with cultural settings
of the region.
THE PURPOSE
To show the region is home to diverse peoples, and cultures (languages,
religion, customs…) and economic activities.
 HUMAN EVOLUTION
Regarding origin of human being, there are two divergent views.

1. The creationist view that argues super natural force or God created
non-living and living things including human being with complete
physical shape and structure.

2. The evolutionist view asserts that living things and non living things
developed from small beings through gradual changes of many million
years. The earliest evolution theorist Charles Darwin (1809- 1882)
published Theory of Evolution or Origin of Species by Natural
Selection (1859) and Descent of Man (1871)
 Human evolution accounts only a fraction of history of the globe
since about 4. 5 billion years before present (B. P.).
 The earliest life came into being between 3 and 1 billion years B. P.
In the form of Blue green algae, small plants, fishes, birds and other
small beings at c. 800 million years B. P.
 Primates branched of placental mammal stream as of 200-170 million
years B. P. and
 Primates developed into Pongidae (such as gorilla, chimpanzee,
orangutan, gibbon etc) while others evolved into Hominidae (human
ancestors).
Archaeological evidences, Scientists have considered East African
Rift Valley as cradle of humanity.
 Evidences related to both biological and cultural evolution have
been discovered in the Lower Omo and Middle Awash River
valleys both by Ethiopian and foreign scholars.
 A fossil named as Chororapithecus dated 10 million B. P. was
discovered in Anchar (in WesternHararghe) in 2007.
 Ardipithicus ramidus kadabba (dated 5.8-5.2 million years BP)
was discovered in Middle Awash
 Ardipithicus Ramidus (dated 4. 2 million B.P.) was discovered by
Tim D. White at Aramis in Afar in 1994 A. D.
 Australopithecines were uncovered at Belohdelie (dated back 3.6 million years
B. P.) in Middle Awash.
 A three years old child’s fossil named as Australopithecus afarensis, Selam,
dated to 3.3 million years B.P was also discovered at Dikika, Mille, Afar in
2000.
 Fossil termed as Australopithecus Afarnesis/Lucy/Dinkinesh (dated c. 3.18
million years B.P.) was discovered by Donald Carl Johnson at Hadar in 1974
A.D.
 Fossil named Australopithecus anamensis - Lake Turkana.

 An eco-fact named as Australopithecus garhi dated to 2.5 million years B.P

was discovered at Bouri, Middle Awash, between 1996 and 1999.
 The development of the human brain was the next stage of main
feature of human evolution, which produced the genus Homo,
believed to have emerged 2-2.5 million years B.P.
 Different evidences of the genus homo have been recovered in
different parts of Ethiopia and the Horn.
HOMO HABILIS
 A partial skull of a fossil named as Homo habilis, which derived from
Latin terms "Homo" (human being) and "Habilis" (skillful use of
hands)
 It has been found in the Lower Omo dated 1.9 million years B. P.
 HOMO ERECTUS
 A fossil named Homo erectus (walking upright, dated 1. 6 million years B. P.)
was discovered at Melka Kunture, Konso Gardula and Gadeb with 900-
1100 cc brain size.
 Homo erectus have originated in Africa and then spread out to the rest of the
world.
 They invented fire and started burial practice.

ARCHAIC HOMO SAPIENS

 Skeleton of Archaic Homosapiens, (knowledgeable human being, dated 400,
000 years B.P.) named Bodo with brain size of 1300-1400cc was discovered in
Middle Awash.
  HOMO SAPIENS SAPIENS
 A fossil of Homo sapiens sapiens dated 100, 000 years B.P. were
discovered at Porc Epic near Dire Dawa, and Kibish around Lower
Omo (in 1967).
 In 2004, Kibish fossils were re-dated to 195, 000 B. P, the oldest date
in the world for modern Homo sapiens.
 Homo sapiens idaltu, found in Middle Awash in 1997, lived about
160, 000 years B.P.
 Cultural evolution is related to technological changes that brought
socio-economic transformation on human life.
 It can be conventionally grouped in to
 Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age
 Stone tools had been the first technologies to be developed by
human beings.
 By taking their features, ways and period of production, stone tools
can be grouped in to three
 Mode I(Olduwan) , Mode II (Acheulean) and Mode III
(Sangoon)
  MODE I
 They are known as Olduwan, which was named based on the first report made at
Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania.
 These stone tools
 mainly characterized by crude and
 mono-facial styles, and were produced by the direct percussion.
 Artifact findings suggest that Olduwan tools made and used by Homo habilis
were discovered near Gona (dated 2.52 million years B.P. in 1992) and at
Shungura in Afar.
 Fossilized animal bones (3. 4 million years B. P.) were found with stone-tool-
inflicted marks on them (the oldest evidence of stone tool in the world) at
Dikika in 2010.
  MODE II
 They known as Acheulean, named after the first report at St.
Acheul, France.
produced by indirect percussion, by using hand-ax or hammer,
mainly characterized by bifacial, pointed and convex features.
Acheulian tools (over a million years old) were found at Kella,
Middle Awash in 1963.
Homo erectus produced Acheulean tools dated back to
1.7.million years B.P, invented fire and started burial practice.
  MODE III
 Sangoon stone tools are characterized by flexible and finest form of
production by the use of obsidian.
 Homos apiens produced Sangoon tools that trace back up to 300,000
years B. P.
 Gademotta site in central Ethiopian Rift Valley has been dated back
to 200, 000 B. P.
 Other vital sites such as Gorgora, Ki’one and Yabello in Ethiopia
and Midhidhishi and Gudgud in Somalia.
The period of the usage of lithus/ stone tools is divided into three
sub-periods.

1. Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) 3.4 m to 11, 000 B.P.

 This was the period when human being developed language with
shelter in cave and used stone, bone, wood, furs & skin materials to
prepare food and clothing.
 There was sex-age labor division with able-bodied males as hunters of
fauna, and children and females as gatherers of flora.
2. Mesolithic/ middle Stone Age/ (11, 000-10,000 B.P.) was
transition between Old and Neolithic/New Stone Ages.
3. Neolithic Revolution (New Stone Age, 10, 000-6, 000 BP)

During the Neolithic period

 Human beings transformed from mobile to sedentary way of life.
 This was a radical shift involving changes from hunting and
gathering to the domestication of plants and animals.
 The process of domestication took place independently in the
various parts of the world.
 In Ethiopia and the Horn chiefly in the more elevated and wetter-
parts, people cultivated plants including Teff (Eragrotis teff), dagussa
(Eleusine coracana), nug (Guzotia abyssinica), enset (Ensete
ventricosum) etc.
 The domestication of enset plant (Enseteedule) reduced shifting
cultivation (continuous clearing of new plots), slowing down soil
exhaustion.
 THE PEOPLING OF THE REGION

Languages and Linguistic Processes

 Ethiopia and the Horn in general is marked by ethnic and
linguistic diversity.
 There are about 90 languages with 200 dialects in Ethiopia
and the Horn.
 Linguists classify languages of Ethiopia and the Horn into two
major language super families. These are
 Afro-Asiatic and

 Nilo-Saharan
 Afro-Asiatic: this super family is sub-divided into the following families:

 Cushitic: linguists divided this language family into four branches:

 Northern: is represented by Beja, spoken in northwestern Eritrea bordering

the Sudan

 Central: Agaw includes Awign, Kunfel, Qimant; Hamtanga and Bilen

 Eastern: this includes diversified linguistic groups like Afar, Ale, Arbore,

Baiso, Burji, Darashe, Dasanech, Gedeo, Hadiya, Halaba, Kambata, Konso,

Libido, Mosiye, Oromo, Saho, Sidama, Somali, Tambaro, Tsemai, etc.

 Southern: represented by Dhalo in Kenya and Nbugua in Tanzania.

Semitic: is divided into two:
 North: Ge'ez, Rashaida (spoken around Eritrea-Sudanese
border); Tigre (spoken in Eritrean Lowland); Tigrigna (spoken
in highland Eritrea and Tigray).
 South: is further divided into two
 Transverse: Amharic, Argoba, Harari, Silte, Wolane and Zay
 Outer: Gafat (extnct), Gurage and Mesmes (endangered)
 Omotic: Anfillo, Ari, Bambasi, Basketo, Bench,Boro
(Shinasha), Chara, Dawro, Dime, Dizi, Doko, Dorze, Gamo,
Ganza, Gayil, Gofa, Hamer-Banna,, Hozo, Kachama-Ganjule,
Karo, Keficho, Konta, Korete, Male, Melo, Nayi, Oyda, Sezo,
Shekkacho, Sheko,Wolaytta, Yem and Zayse.Among its
groups, Ometo includes Wolaytta and Gamo while main Gonga
is Keficho.
  NILO-SAHARAN:
 Anywa, Berta, Gumuz, Kacipo-Balesi, Komo, Kunama,
Kwama,Kwegu,Majang, Mi'en, Murle, Mursi, Nuer,
Nyangatom, Opuo,Shabo, Suri& Uduk.
 SETTLEMENT PATTERNS
 A settlement pattern is the distribution of peoples across the
landscape.
 It is the results of long historical processes in northeast Africa. In
some areas, settlement was dense and in other areas sparse. Some
people inhabited extensive highlands and others the lowlands.
 Environmental, socio-economic, and political processes
significantly shaped and reshaped the spatial distribution of
peoples in the region.
 The Cushitic and Semitic peoples had inhabited the area between
the Red Sea in the east and Blue Nile in the west from where
they dispersed to different directions.
 The Cushites have evolved to be the largest linguistic group in
Ethiopia and the Horn and have also spread over wide areas from
Sudan to Tanzania.
 Similarly, the Semitic peoples spread over large area and
eventually settled the northern, north central, northeastern, south
central and eastern parts of Ethiopia and the Horn. The Semites
are the second majority people next to the Cushites.
 Except the Shinasha, who live in Benishangul-Gumuz and the

South Mao in Wallagga, the majority of Omotic peoples have

inhabited southwestern Ethiopia along the Omo River basin.

 The Nilotes are largely settled along the Ethiopia-Sudanese

border although some of the Chari-Nile family inhabited as far

as southern Omo.
 ECONOMIC FORMATIONS
 The domestication of plants and animals gave humanity two
interdependent modes of life agriculture and pastoralism.
 A predominantly pastoral economy has characterized the
eastern lowland region since early periods.
 Pastoral economy has been the most common economic
practice among the Afar, Saho and Somali as well as Karayu
and Borana Oromo.
 The plateaus have sustained plough agriculture for thousands
of years supporting sizable populations.
 Majority of the populations were engaged in mixed farming.
 It is here that sedentary agriculture had been started and
advanced at least since 10, 000 years B. P. by the Cushites,
Semites and Omotic groups.
 In the sparsely populated western lowland region, the dominant
economic formations were pastoralism, shifting agriculture,
fishing, apiculture and hunting.
 The Nilotes along the Blue Nile and Baro-Akobo Rivers have
been shifting cultivators where sorghum has been a staple food.
 Among majority Nilotic communities, cattle have high
economic and social values.
 RELIGION AND RELIGIOUS PROCESSES

INDIGENOUS RELIGION
 This includes a variety of religious beliefs and practices, which
are native to the region and have been followed by the local
people since ancient times.
 A distinctive mark of indigenous religion is belief in one
Supreme Being, but special powers are attributed to natural
phenomena, which are considered sacred.
  THE OROMO WAAQEFFANNAA
 Waaqeffanna is based on the existence of one Supreme Being
called Waqa.
 Waqa's power is manifested through the spirits called Ayyana.
 The major spirits include Abdar/Dache (soil fertility spirit), Atete
(women or human and animal fertility spirit), Awayi/Tiyyana
(sanctity spirit), Balas (victory spirit), Chato/Dora (wild animals
defender), Gijare/ Nabi (father and mother’s sprit), Jaricha (peace
spirit) and Qasa (anti-disease spirit.
In the autumn and spring seasons Every year at the edge of
ever-flowing river there is thanks giving festival called Irrecha.

Effective relationship between Ayyaanaa and Oromo has

been maintained by respected expert known as Qaalluu for
male and Qaallitti for female.
Qaalluu or Qaallitti care for spiritual wellbeing as well as
influence socio-economic & political life of the community.
Place of worship or Qaalluu house is called Galmaa located
on hilltop/side or in grove of large trees.
 THE HADIYA'S WAA
 The Supreme Being in hadiya is known as Waa.

 It is believed to exist before everything or create world.

 Its eyes are represented by elincho (sun) & agana (moon).
 Spirits like Jara (male’s protector), Idota (female‟s guard),
Hausula, Qedane & Warriqa attracted most of prayers and
sacrifices at Shonkolla & Kallalamo mountains chosen by
Anjancho & Jaramanjcho.
 The Kambata have Negitaor Aricho Magano/Sky God and
religious officials known as Magnancho.
 The Gedeo called the Supreme Being, Mageno and had
thanks giving ceremony called Deraro.
 The Konso religion centered on worship of Waaq/Wakh.
 The Gojjam Agaw used to call the Supreme Being Diban
(Sky God).
 Among sections of the Gurage, there have been Waq/Goita
(supreme deity), Bozha (thunder God) and Damwamwit
(health Goddess).
 The Gurage and the Yem had a common deity known as
Abba at Enar (Henar).
 The Yem worshipped Ha’o (Sky God).
 So’ala clan was considered as the top in religious duties as it was
in charge of Shashokam (the most vital deity).
 Religious functions were performed through couriers in each
village called Magos.

 The Konta’s spirit-cult was called Docho.

  THE WOLAYTA’S TOSA
The Wolayta God is known as Tosa and spirit as Ayyana including
 Tawa Awa/Moytiliya (father’s spirit)

 Sawuna (justice spirit)

 Wombo (rain spirit)

 Kuchuruwa (emergency spirit)

 Gomashera (war spirit) etc.

Annual worship of spirits was performed at a sacred place called

Mitta.
People gathered around tree called Dongowa which varied from
clan to clan.
 KAFA’S YERO
 Kafa called the Supreme Being as Yero and spirit as Eqo
 A person who hosts Eqo is known as Alamo or eke-nayo

 Father of all spirits is dochi or dehe-tateno.

  JUDAISM
 Judaism is the religion of the ancient Jewish/Hebrew people.

 It is considered to be the expression of the covenant that

Yahweh/Jehovah/God established with the Israeli.
 It has been followed in Ethiopia and the Horn by the people
called Beta Israel since 4th c.
 The Bete-Israel practiced Haymanot (religious practices,
which are generally recognized as Israelite religion that differs
from Rabbinic Judaism).
 Many of the Bete-Israel accounts of their own origins from
 The very ancient migration of the Tribe of Dan to Ethiopia,
perhaps at the time of the Exodus (1400-1200 B.C.).
 The later crises in Judea, split of the northern Kingdom of Israel
from the southern Kingdom of Judah after the death of King
Solomon or Babylonian Exile.
 During Menilek I, who is believed to be the son of King Solomon
of ancient Israel and Makeda, ancient Queen of Saba (Sheba), and
considered to be the first Solomonic Emperor of Ethiopia.
 Another group of Jews is said to have been arrived in
Ethiopia led by Azonos and Phinhas in 6th century A.D.
 Still others are said to have been Jewish immigrants
intermarried with the Agaws.
 Whatever the case, the Jews appear to have been isolated
from mainstream Jewish for at least a millennium.
 The Jewish developed and lived for centuries in northern and
northwestern Ethiopia.
  CHRISTIANITY

 Aksumite King Ezana (r. 320-360 AD) was the first to embrace
Christianity
 Instrumental in his conversion were Syrian brothers, Aedesius &
Fremnatos (Frementius).
 When Fremnatos visited Alexandria, Patriarch Atnatewos (328-
373), appointed him first Bishop of Ethiopia under title Aba
Salama.
 This made Ethiopian Orthodox Church (EOC) subservient to
Coptic in Egypt until full independence.
 Consecration of bishops from Coptic Church in Egypt
continued until 1959, when Abune Baslios became the first
Ethiopian Patriarch.
 Christianity was further expanded to the mass of the society
in later part of 5th century, during the reign of Ella Amida II
(478-86) by the Nine Saints.
Name Origin Church/ Location of the
Monastery Church
Abuna Aregawwi Rome Debre Damo Eastern Tigray
(Abba Za
Mika’el)
Abuna Isaq Rome Debre Gerima Medera (East of
(Abba Gerima) Adwa )
Abba Pentelwon Rome Debre Pentelwon Asbo (North East
of Aksum)
Abba Afse Ladocia Debre Afse Yeha (Northeast
of Aksum)
Abba Alef Qa’esare’a Debre Haleluya Biheza (Northeast
of Aksum)
Abba Gubba Cilicia Debre Gubba West of Medera
Abba Liqanos Constantinople Debre Qonasel North of Aksum
Abba Sehama Antioch Tsedania Southeast of
Adwa
Abba Yima’ata Qosa’iti Debre Yima’ata Ger’alta
 Then expansion of Christianity continued in Zagwe period
(1150-1270) and chiefly gained fresh momentum during the
early Medieval Period (1270-1527), when many churches and
monasteries were constructed.
 These include Rock-hewn churches of Lalibela, Debra-Bizan of
Hamasen in Eritrea; Debra-Hayiq in Wollo, Debre-Dima and Debre-
Werq in Gojjam; Debra-Libanos in Shewa, Birbir Mariam in Gamo
and Debre-Asabot on the way to Harar.
 These churches and monasteries are not merely religious centers,
but served through the ages as repositories of ancient manuscripts
and precious objects of art.
 From mid 16th to the early 17th, Jesuits tried to convert
Monophysite EOC to Dyophysite Catholic. Yet, this led to
bloody conflicts that in turn led to expulsion of the Jesuits.
 However, the Jesuits intervention triggered religious
controversies within EOC that is discussed in subsequent units.
 As of 1804, missionaries’ religious expansion was one of the
dominant themes of treaties concluded between European
diplomats and Ethiopian authorities.
 The Catholic Giuseppe Sapeto (Lazarist mission founder),
Giustino De Jacobis (Capuchin order founder), Cardinal
Massaja, Antoine and Arnauld d'Abbadie were active.
 Anglican Church Missionary Society (ACMS), Church
Missionary Society of London (CMSL) and Wesleyan
Methodist Society led Protestant missionaries and their major
leaders were Samuel Gobat, C.W. Isenberg and J. L. Krapf.
 Systematic approach of trained Protestants enabled them
to win confidence of local people. They translated spiritual
books into vernaculars.
 They adopted old names for Supreme Being like Waqayyo,
Tosa etc and used them in new versions as equivalent to God.
 Village schools were established as centers of
preaching the faith. These schools were open to all
children of chiefs and farmers.
 They also provided medical facilities. All these
attracted a large number of followers. Eventually,
continuous and systematic indoctrinations seem to have
resulted in grafting of new teaching on indigenous
religion.
 ISLAM

 Islam was founded by Prophet Mohammed.

 When his teachings faced opposition from the Quraysh rulers,

Aksumite king Armah Ella gave asylum for the early followers

including his daughter Rukiya & her husband Uthman and his

future wives Umm Habiba and Umm Salma led by Jafar Ali

Talib from 615- 628 A. D.

 Subsequently, Islam spread to the Horn of Africa not through
Jihad, but through peaceful ways including trade.
 Islam was well established in Dahlak (Alalay) Islands on the Red
Sea by the beginning of 8th c.
 In the early 10th c, the Muslim community on the islands
developed a sultanate.
 In due course, Muslims settled other places on the Red Sea coast.
It was from these coastal areas that Islam gradually spread among
the predominantly pastoral communities of the interior, largely
through the agency of preachers and merchants.
 The Dahlak route played a minor role in introduction of
Islam into the interior where Christianity was strongly
established.
 The port of Zeila on western coast of Gulf of Aden served
as an important gateway for the introduction of Islam into
the present day Shewa, Wollo and Hararghe.
 Islam firmly established itself in the coastal areas by the 8th
and 9th .
 From there, it radiated to central, southern, and eastern
Ethiopia through the role of Muslim clerics who followed in
the footsteps of traders.
 In this regard, it should be noted that Sheikh Hussein of Bale, a
Muslim saint of medieval period, played very important role in
the expansion of Islam into Bale, Arsi and other southeastern
parts of Ethiopia and the Horn.
 Another Islamic center in this region is Sof Umar shrine.
 Islam was introduced into Somali territories in 8th
century A. D. through Benadir coasts of Moqadishu,
Brava and Merca. Abu Bakr Ibn Fukura al Din Sahil set
up Moqadishu Minirate c.1269.
 The mosques, Islamic learning and pilgrimage centers
have been the depositories of cultures, traditions and
literature of local Muslims.
 Islam was further expanded by mystical orders (turuq, singular tariqa).

 Among these, the Qadiriyya (named after Hanbali jurist Abd al-Qadir
al-Jilani, 1077-1166) emphasized collective devotion (hadra).
 Ahmadiyya, which had been set up by Ahmad Ibn Idris al Fasi of Fez
in Morocco (1760-1837) stressed austerity, turban and veil.
 It had contacts with Tijaniyya (named after Abu l-Abbas Ahmad b.
Muhammad b. al-Mukhtar al Tijani, 1737- 1815) and Summaniyya
(named after Muhammad b. Abd al-Karim al Sammāni, 1718-75).
 The sheiks of these orders expanded Islam as far as the Gibe region.
Thank
You!
UNIT THREE
POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY IN ETHIOPIA
AND THE HORN TO THE END OF THE 13TH C.
Emergence of States

One important factor for the emergence of states was the

beginning of sedentary agriculture.
State refers to an autonomous political unit having
 Population
 defined territory

 sovereignty and government with the power to decree and enforce

laws.

State was the outcome of regular cultural process.

The first states were theocratic states and priests (shaman)
maintained the social and religious affairs of their people.
As production became market oriented, Chiefs, began
collecting regular and compulsory tributes known as
protection payments with which they maintained themselves;
their supporters chiefly the army, the bureaucracy and other
followers.
Ethiopia and the Horn is one of the regions in Africa, where
early state formation took place.

Ancient States in North and Northeast

A. Punt

B. Da’amat
C. The Aksumite State
D. Zagwe Dynasty
A. Punt

Punt was the earliest recorded state in Ethiopia and the Horn.

The evidence on Punt comes from Egyptian hieroglyphic that

tells of a series of naval expeditions, which the Egyptian
Pharaohs sent to Punt.
 Pharaoh Sahure (r. 2743-2731 B.C.)

 Pharaoh Asosi
 Queen Hatshepsut (1490-1468 B.C.)
Based on this evidences punt was the most important sources of
myrrh, ebony and electrum (gold and silver alloy), frank
incense, cinnamon, sweet smelling woods (sandal), spices,
ivory, rhinoceros horn, leopard and leopard skins, ostrich
feathers and egg, live monkeys, giraffes, people etc
Iron, bronze, asses, foxes, cattle, animals fur, dying and
medicinal plants were also exported from Punt to Egypt. In
return, axes, daggers, swords, knives, sickles, clothes, bracelets,
necklaces, beads and other trinkets were imported from Egypt
to Punt.
Scholars have not reached agreement as to the
exact location of Punt.
It was suggested that may be punt is located in
Northern or northeastern Somalia
Northern Ethiopia and
stretched from Swakim or Massawa to Babel
Mandeb (Gate of Tears) and Cape Gardafui
B. Da’amat and Other Cultural Centers in Northern Ethiopia and
Eritrea

The center of Da’amat was located south of Aksum.

They used politico religious title known as Mukarib based on
5th c B. C inscription.
Various gods and goddesses were worshipped in Da’amat and
pre-Aksumite cultural centers.
There were similar practices in South Arabia at the time.
Major cultural centers in Northern Ethiopia
A. Yeha
 The oldest
 Emerged around 1, 000 BC

 Located northeast of Aksum

B. Hawulti Melazo: Situated to southeast of Aksum

C. Addi-Seglemeni: Located to Southwest of Aksum

There were also other cultural centers like Addi Gelemo, Addi
Grameten, Addi Kewih, Atsbi Dera, Feqiya, Hinzat, Sefra,
Senafe, Tekonda etc.
C. The Aksumite State
The nucleus of the Aksumite state was formed around 200-100
B.C.
In its heyday, Aksumite territories extended from the Red Sea
coast in the East to the Western edge of Ethiopian plateau
overlooking the vast Nile Valley in the west and from the
northern most corner of Eritrea and possibly as far south as
northern parts of Shewa.
Adulis on the western coast of the Red Sea was the major port
of Aksum.
The major items of export of the Aksumite state consisted
mainly of the natural products such as ivory, myrrh, emerald,
frankincense and some spices (like ginger, cassia and
cinnamon), gold, rhinoceros horns, hippopotamus hides,
tortoise shells and some curiosity animals like apes.
In turn, a number of manufactured products like garments and
textiles from Egypt, India, Roman Empire, and Persia;
glassware and jewelry from Egypt and other places; metallic
sheets, tools or utensils of various kinds, oil and wine from
Roman Empire and Syria were imported.
Zoscales (c. 76-89), the then king of Aksum, used to
communicate in Greek language, Lingua Franca of Greco-
Roman world.
Aksumite kings had extensive contacts with the outside world
notably with the South Arabian region, leading to exchange of
ideas, material and spiritual culture.
From the third to seventh centuries, Aksumite kings like
Aphilas, Endybis, Wazeba, Ezana, Ousanas II,etc. minted and
issued different kinds of coins in gold, silver and bronze for
both overseas and local transactions.
Aksum was one of the four great powers of the world
 Roman Empire
 Persia
 China
 Aksum) at the time.

It was a major naval and trading power from the 1st to the 7th c.
The decline of Aksumite state

The Aksumite state had begun to decline since the late seventh century
because of internal and external challenges.
Factors for its decline
 Environmental degradation
 decline in agricultural productivity and
 plague infestation started to weaken it

With the destruction of the port of Adulis by the Arabs around 702
Aksumite international trade came under the control Arab Muslims,
and Aksumite state was isolated from its old commercial and
diplomatic partners.
Due to this the Aksumite state declined economically,
politically and militarily.
Internally Aksumite hegemony was challenged by local
rebellions.
The recurring rebellions of
 the Beja,
 the Agaw and

 Queen Bani al Hamwiyah (Yodit) finally sealed the collapse of the

Aksumite state.
Contribution of Aksumite state

Aksumite civilization had a profound impact upon the on its

successors such as the Zagwe, ‘Solomonic Dynasty’, the
Gondarine period
Sub-Saharan Africa’s only surviving indigenous script and
calendar
 EOC hymns, chants and paintings
Diversified ceramic and lithic tools, ivory curving, and
urbanization and sophisticated building traditions (palaces,
stele, rock-hewn churches…)
It also developed complex administrative and governance
system, and agricultural system including irrigation
D. Zagwe Dynasty

The founder of the Zagwe dynasty is known as Merra-Tekle-

Haimanot.
Merra-Tekle-Haimanot married Masobe Worq, the daughter of the
last Aksumite king Dil Na'od.
Later he overthrew his father-in-law and took control of power.

The Agaw served as soldiers and functionaries as the Aksumites state

shifted southwards to Kubar rural highland in the territory of the Agaw.
After integrating so well with Aksumite ruling class, they successfully
took over the state administration.
The Zagwe Dynasty made its center in Bugna District at Adafa near Roha
(Lalibela).
The territory of the Zagwe kingdom extended from the highland provinces of
the ancient Aksumite kingdom
 In the north down to northern Shewa
 In the south; the Lake Tana region and
 In the west; the northern part of what is today Gojjam

The Agaw maintained the ancient Aksumite traditions almost intact.

 Zagwe rulers renewed cultural and trade contact with eastern Mediterranean region.
 The most important export items included slaves, ivory and rare spices while
cotton, linen, silver and copper vessels, various types of drags and newly minted
coins were imported.
The Zagwe period was a golden age in Ethiopia's paintings and
the translation of some of religious works from Arabic into
Ge'ez.
Zagwe rulers are best known for the construction of
1. Cave
2. semi-hewn
3. monolithic churches
1. Cave: with some decoration inside, almost similar with
natural cave, eg. Bete-Mesqel.
2. Semi-hewn:
 With detailed interior decoration and partial decoration outside.

 They are not totally separated from surrounding rock.

 Their roofs or walls are still attached to rock
 eg. Bete Denagil, Bete Debresina/Mikael, Bete Golgota, Bete
Merqoriwos, Bete Gabri’el Rufa’el and Bete Abba Libanos.
3. Monolithic
 They had detailed decoration inside including roof and outside.
 They are completely separated (carved out) from surrounding
rock
 eg. Bete Amanuel, Bete Giyorgis, Bete Mariyam and Bete
Medhanialem
Among the eleven churches of Lalibela, Bete Medhanelem is
the largest of all and Bete Giyorgis is said to be the most
finely built in the shape of the cross.
Lalibela wanted to establish the second Jerusalem, and
mitigate or avoid difficulties, which Ethiopian Christians
encountered in journey to Holy Lands at least once in their
lifetime.
This was done by constructing churches based on the model of
Holy Lands in Israel.
The decline of the Zagwe Dynasty
1. Internal problems of royal succession
2. Oppositions from groups claiming descent from the ancient
rulers of Aksum.
Zagwe kings were considered as “illegitimate rulers” based on the
legend of the Queen of Sheba.
 “Solomonic” Dynasty ruled the Aksumite state until its power was
“usurped” by the Zagwes.
Yekuno-Amlak (r. 1270-1285), who claimed decent from the last
Aksumite king Dilna’od defeated and killed the last Zagwe king
Yitbarek.
Yekuno-Amlak took the state power contending the “restoration” of
“Solomonic” Dynasty
East, Central, Southern, and Western States

A. Bizamo
 It was located on the southern bend of Abay around the Wambara
area.
 It was founded in the 18th c and had early connections with Damot.

B. Damot
 It was strong kingdom that expanded its territories into most of the
lands to south of Abay and north of Lake Turkana as well as west
of Awash and east of Didessa.
 Motalami was a prominent king of Damot in the 13th century.
C. Enarya
 It was a kingdom in the Gibe region in southwestern Ethiopia.
 The royal clan was Hinnare Bushasho (Hinnario Busaso).
 Enarya kingship was a divine one: the king (Hinnare-Tato) was
secluded and considered as sacred. He communicated visitors
through an intermediary, Afe Busho.
 The real power rested with Mikretcho (council) including Awa-
rasha (king's spokesman) and Atche-rasha (royal treasurer).
 The kings had residences in Yadare and Gowi.
D. Gafat
 Historically, the territory of Gafat lies south of Abay (Blue Nile)
 It was inhabited by Semitic speaking population related to Adere
and the Gurage.
 It is not clear from available records whether the Gafat formed a
“state” or not, but Gafat mountains provided a rich source of gold.
 The Gafat largely remained practitioners of their own indigenous
religion.
 The province was ruled by the title of Awalamo
Muslim Sultanates

A. Shewa
 Founded by Makhzumi Khalid ibn al-Walid, who claimed decent from
Meca
 He set up Makhzumite Sultanate in 896 A. D (283 A.H.) on northeastern
foothill of Shewa.
B. Fatagar
 was founded around Minjar, Shenkora and Ada’a in the 11th c.
 It was a hilly lowland area with thoroughly cultivated fields of wheat and
barley, fruits, and extensive grazing grounds full of numerous herds of
cattle, sheep and goats.
C. Dawaro
 Located south of Fatagar between upper waters of Awash and Wabi
Shebelle extending to Charchar in Northeast and Gindhir in Southeast.
 They have a currency called hakuna in which transition takes place.

D. Bali
 It was an extensive kingdom occupying high plateau, separating
basins of Shebelle and Rift valley Lakes.
 Bali was one of the largest of Ethiopia’s Muslim provinces.
 Its economic activity resembles those of other nearby Muslim lands.
 Trade was mainly based on barter exchanging cattle, sheep, cloth etc. It
had strong army composed of cavalry and infantry.
E. Ifat
 Its territory ran from northeast-southwesterly in the Afar plain
eastward to the Awash.
 It was established by Umar Walasma
 The sultanate was fertile and well watered.
 Its inhabitants earned their living from cultivation of wheat, sorghum,
millet and teff, and animal husbandry. Sugar cane, bananas, variety of
fruits, beans, squashes, cucumbers, and cabbage completed the diet.
 Chat was described for the first time as being consumed as a
stimulant.
F. Others
 Mutually independent states like Arababani (between Hadiya
and Dawwaro)
 Biqulzar, Dera (between Dawaro and Bali), Fadise, Gidaya,
Hargaya, Harla, Kwilgora, Qadise, Sharkah (West of Dawaro
and North of Bali in Arsi) and Sim were established and
flourished.
External Contacts

Ethiopia and the Horn had contacts with Egypt since at least
3,000 B. C. These relations may be the region’s earliest
contacts with the Mediterranean world or the Greco-Roman
World.
Following the introduction of Christianity, Aksum had
established close relationship with the East Roman or
Byzantine Empire with which it shared common commercial
interest in the Red Sea area against their rival Persians.
Around the middle of the 12th century the Europeans began to
consider Ethiopian Christian Kingdom as a very powerful and
wealthy state existing in the Horn of Africa.
 A myth about a very rich and powerful Christian ruler known
as Prester John began to circulate in Europe.
Economic Formations

A. Agriculture and Land Tenure System

 The main stay of ancient states' economy in highland areas was
plough agriculture.
 The mastery of the technology of irrigation also contributed to
the growth of agricultural production.
 The rules according to which members of the society hold,
share and use land constitute is known as the land tenure
system.
The most ancient system of land holding which survived in many
parts of Ethiopia and the Horn is the communal land tenure
system.
Communal right to land is a group right. Here group refers to
the family, the clan and the other lineage groups to which the
individual belonged.
Peasants in the north had rist rights in their respective areas.
Rist is a kind of communal birthright to land by members of
the families and clans whose ancestors had settled and lived in
the area over long periods.
The rist owners were known as bale-rist.
They paid tributes to the state and all land belonged to the state
theoretically.
Gult is a right to levy tribute on rist owners’ produce.
The tribute collected by bale-gults, partly apportioned for their
own up keep and the rest were sent to the imperial center.
Gult right that became hereditary was called Riste-Gult as
famous wellplaced officials used to transfer their position to
their offspring.
B. Handicraft
 Indigenous handcraft technology had existed since the ancient
period.
 The social, economic and political conditions of ancient states had
allowed the emergence of artisans in various fields with diverse
forms and applications including metal work, pottery, tannery,
carpentry, masonry, weaving, jewellery, basketry and others.
 However, the artisans were mostly despised and marginalized.
C. Trade
 Trade was another important economic activity of ancient states
that obtained considerable income from both internal and
international trade.
Socio-cultural Achievements

A. Architecture
The engraving of stele the third century AD.
There were totally 58 steles in and around Aksum that can be
grouped into well made and decorated, half completed and
megaliths (not hewn).
The longest one of these stele measures 33meters heights (the
first in the world). It is highly decorated in all of its four sides.
It represents a-14 storied building with many windows and a
false door at the bottom. It also bears pre-Christian symbols,
which are a disc and a crescent (half moon) at the top.
The second longest obelisk measures 24 meters height that was
successfully erected and represents a tenstoried building with
many windows and a false door at the bottom.
The third longest stele measures 21 meters and represents a nine-
storied building with many windows and a false door at the
bottom. It is smooth at the back of its side. It is without any
decoration.
The Zagwe churches are regarded as some of the finest
architecture of the Christian world.
It was registered by UNESCO as part of world cultural heritage
in 1978.

B. Writing System
 The Sabean language

 Geʽez script
C. Calendar
People needed to know and remember the times when the rains
would begin and end as well as the rise and fall of the water
level.
The responsibility of understanding these vital climatic cycles
fell on expertise. In due course, calendars were invented.
Calendars were developed and adopted among various peoples
of Ethiopia and the Horn.
Oromo calendar has been based on astronomical observations of
moon in conjunction with seven or eight particular stars or group
of stars called Urjii Dhahaa (guiding stars) and Bakkalcha
(morning star).
The Sidama calendar rotates following movements of stars with 13
months a year, 12 of which are divided equally into 28 days while
the thirteenth month has 29 days. The Sidama week has only 4
days (Dikko, Dela, Qawado and Qawalanka) and hence each
month has 7 weeks. Nominated Mote (King) is presented to Fiche
Chambalala, New Year ritual, for Qetela or popular demonstration
Ethiopic solar calendar has 12 months of 30 days plus 5 or 6 (is
added every 4 years) Epagomenal days, which comprise a thirteenth
month.
A gap of 7–8 years between Ethiopic and Gregorian calendars results
from alternative calculation in determining date of Annunciation.
Thus, the first day of the year, 1 Meskerem/Enkutatash is usually
September 11 (Gregorian). However, it falls on September 12 in years
before the Gregorian leap year.
The Ethiopic solar calendar has evolved to become the official
calendar of the country.
The Muslim (Islamic) calendar is a lunar calendar consisting of
12 lunar months in a year of 354 or 355 days.
It employs the Hijra year of 622 AD, in which Mohammed and
his followers made flight from Mecca to Medina and
established the first Muslim community (ummah).
Dates in this era are usually denoted AH (After Hijra, "in the
year of the Hijra").
Years prior to the Hijra are reckoned as BH ("Before the
Hijra").
D. Numerals
 Numerals appeared in Ethiopia and the Horn at the beginning of
fourth century AD.
 Geʽez uses numeral system comparable to the Hebrew, Arabic and
Greek numerals, but it lacks individual characters for multiples of
100.
 Numbers are over- and underlined in proper typesetting,
combined to make a single bar, but some less sophisticated fonts
cannot render this and show separate bars above and below each
character.
Thank You!