0001 The Handout of Ethiopian Histo

Lecture Notes to Hist.
1012
History of Ethiopia and the Horn Module Note (Hist.1012)
UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1. The Nature and Uses of History
A. Nature of History
The term history derived from the Greek word Istoria, meaning “inquiry” or “an account of
one’s inquiries.” The first use of the term is attributed to one of the ancient Greek historians,
Herodotus (c. 484–425 B.C.E.), who is often held to be the “father of history.”
History can be defined as an organized and systematic study of the past, based on facts and
evidences. The study involves the discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of
information about past events. The major concern of history is the study of human society and its
interaction with the natural environment. History is divided into Pre-History (before the
development of writing) around 5,500 B.C, which is mainly studied by archaeology, and the
Historical (after the development of writing) after 5,000 B.C, studied by historians. Historians
organize and divide the human past into ancient, medieval and modern history (what we call
periodization).
B. Uses of History
History Helps Better Understand the Present
Knowledge of relevant historical background is essential for a balanced and in-depth
understanding of many current world situations.
History Provides a Sense of Identity
It is only through history (memory, telling and writing) that individuals and societies define their
identity, orient themselves, and understand their relationships with the past and with other
societies; and how we fit in the world.
History Provides the Basic Background for Other Disciplines
History provides background to other disciplines such as literature, art, philosophy, religion,
sociology, political science, anthropology, economics, etc.
History Teaches Critical Skills
Studying history helps students to develop key research skills. These include how to find and
evaluate sources; how to make coherent arguments based on various kinds of evidence, present
clearly in writing and other skills essential to make informed decisions in our day-to-day life.
History Helps Develop Tolerance and Open-Mindedness
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Lecture Notes to Hist.1012
Most of us have a tendency to regard our own cultural practices, styles and values as the only
right and proper ones. Studying other societies, however, enable us to acquire broad perspectives
in life, and develop broader views, flexibility, multiculturalism and tolerance etc.
History Supplies Endless Source of Fascination
Studying ancient, medieval and modern history of lives offers a sense of beauty and excitement,
and ultimately another perspective on human life and society.
Generally, It is only through history are we able understand what elements of a society has
changed or continued. Nevertheless, just as history can be useful, it can also be abused. Such
abuses come mainly from deliberate manipulation of the past to fit current political agenda. In
such cases, history is written backwards. That is, the past is described and interpreted to justify
the present. Historical writings are subjected to independent and external verification.
1.2. Sources and Methods of Historical Study
It is said that “where there are no sources, there is no history”. Historical sources are broadly
classified into two types: Primary and Secondary.
Primary sources are original or first hand in their proximity to the event both in time and in
space. Examples of primary sources are manuscripts (handwritten materials), diaries, letters,
minutes, court records and administrative files, travel documents, photographs, maps, video and
audiovisual materials, and artifacts such as coins, fossils, weapons, utensils, and buildings.
Secondary sources are written long after the event has occurred, providing an interpretation of
what happened. Examples of secondary sources are articles, books, textbooks, biographies, and
published stories or movies about historical events. Secondary materials give us what appear to
be finished accounts of certain historical periods and phenomena.
Nevertheless, no history work can be taken as final, as new sources keep coming to light. New
sources make possible new historical interpretations or entirely new historical reconstructions.
]
Oral Sources/Data constitute the other category of historical sources. Oral sources can be
primary or secondary, depending the relationship the oral narrator has to the historical event.
Oral sources are especially valuable to study and document the history of non-literate societies.
They can also be used to fill missing gaps. Written or oral- the data should be subjected to
critical evaluation before it is used as evidence, compared with other written evidence. All
sources should be evaluated before use.
1.3. Historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn
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Historiography can be defined as the history of historical writing, studying how knowledge of
the past, either recent or distant, is obtained and transmitted.
1) The Development of History as a Field of Study:

a) Herodotus (c. 484–425 B.C.E.) and Thucydides (c.455-400 B.C.E.)_ organized study and
narration of the past was introduced by ancient Greek historians.
b) The Han dynasty of China, especially the king Sima Qian (145–86 B.C.E.).
c) The German historian, Leopold Von Ranke (1795–1886), and his colleagues established
history as an independent discipline in Berlin with its own set of methods and concepts.
Ranke is considered as the “father of modern historiography.”
2) Ethiopian Ancient writings:

a) Periplus of the Erythrean Sea_ The earliest known reference that we have on history of
Ethiopia and the Horn. It is the written in the first century A.D by an anonymous author.
b) Christian Topography _It is another document describing Aksum’s trade and Aksumite
king’s campaigns on both sides of the sea. It is the composed by Cosmas Indicopleustes,
a Greek sailor, in the sixth century A.D.
c) Inscriptions (stone) _the earliest written Ethiopian material dating from the fourth century
A.D. Like the one inscribed by King Ezana.
d) Manuscript _ like the one discovered in Haiq Istifanos monastery of present day Wollo in the
thirteenth century A.D; which contains the list of medieval kings and their history in
brief. These sources are religious but often provide historical evidences.
e) Hagiographies _ are descriptions about the prestige of saintscommon among the EOTC (in
Ge’ez), and Muslims; often provide data for socio-economic and political developments.
f) Chronicles _ in the ancient and medieval Ethiopia first Ge’ez and later Amharic(after Tewodros
II) was used from 14th to the early 20th century. These sources write the glory, genealogy and
daily lives of kings in Ethiopia. Chronicles are known for their factual detail and strong
chronological framework, although not an absolute one. These sources are known for their
exaggerations and not describing other socio-economic and political issues.
3) Medieval Arab and Other visitors:

a) al-Masudi (10th c.) and Ibn Battuta (14th c.)_ who visited the coast of Ethiopia and Horn
_described the culture, language and import-export trade in the main central region.
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b) Futuh al Habesha _was composed by a Yemeni chronicle of Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi,
called Shihab ad-Din, who recorded the conflict between the Christian kingdom and the
Muslim principalities in the sixteenth century; but his writing abruptly ends in 1535.
c) Al-Haymi _ The other first-hand account about the 17 century Ethiopian history was left to us
by him; who led a Yemeni delegation in 1647 to the court of Fasiledes (r. 1632-67).
d) Abba Bahrey _ for the Ethiopian history of the 16th century, the expansion of the Oromo and
the Gadaa System he wrote his accounts in Ge’ez (a priest and a monk).
5) Missionaries, Travelers and Foreign Writers:

a) Missionaries (Catholics and Protestants) _ An example of such account is The Prester John
of the Indies, composed by a Portuguese priest, Francisco Alvarez who accompanied the
Portuguese mission to the court of Lebne-Dengel in 1520.
b) Travelers_ James Bruce’s Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile, in the 17th c. Like
other sources, however, both the missionaries and travelers’ materials can only be used
with considerable reservations and with care for they are socially and politically biased.
d) Foreign writers _ among them, one developed interest in Ethiopian studies was a German,
Hiob Ludolf (1624-1704). Ludolf was the founder of Ethiopian studies in Europe in the
seventeenth century. He wrote Historia Aethiopica (translated into English as A New
History of Ethiopia). Ludolf never visited Ethiopia; he wrote the country’s history largely
based on information he collected from an Ethiopian priest named Abba Gorgorios (Abba
Gregory) who was in Europe at that time. In the nineteenth century, August Dillman
published two studies on ancient Ethiopian history. Compared to Ludolf, Dillman
demonstrated all markers of objectivity in his historical research endeavors.
6) The Early Twentieth Century:

Unlike chroniclers, these writers dealt with a range of topics from social justice, administrative
reform and economic analysis to history.
Aleqa Taye Gebre-Mariam_ wrote a book on the history of Ethiopia; Aleqa Asme Giorgis_
wrote a book on the Oromo people. Debtera Fisseha-Giorgis Abyezgi.
Negadrases Afework Gebre-Iyesus_ (after the three) wrote the first Amharic novel, Tobiya, in
Ethiopian history.
Gebre-Hiwot Baykedagn_ wrote books like Atse Menilekna Ityopia (Emperor Menilek and
Ethiopia) and Mengistna Yehizb Astedader (Government and Public Administration).
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Blatten Geta Hiruy Wolde-Selassie_ The most prolific writer of the early twentieth century
Ethiopia. He wrote Ethiopiana Metema (Ethiopia and Metema), Wazema (Eve), Yehiwot
Tarik (A Biographical Dictionary) and Yeityopia Tarik (A History of Ethiopia).
In contrast to their predecessors, Gebre-Hiwot and Hiruy exhibited relative objectivity and
methodological sophistication in their works.
Tekle-Tsadik Mekuria (After liberation) _ formed a bridge between writers in pre-1935 and
Ethiopia professional historians who came after him. Tekle-Tsadik has published about
eight historical works. Tekle-Tsadik made better evaluation of his sources than his
predecessors.
Yilma Deressa_ Ye Ityopiya Tarik Be’asra Sidistegnaw Kifle Zemen(A History of Ethiopia in the
Sixteenth Century). The book addresses the Oromo population movement and the wars
between the Christian kingdom and the Muslim sultanates as its main subjects.
Blatten Geta Mahteme-Selassie Wolde-Meskel _ wrote Zikre Neger. Zikre Neger is a
comprehensive account of Ethiopia’s prewar land tenure systems and taxation. Gebre-
Wold Engidawork wrote aspects of land tenure. Dejazmach Kebede Tesema_ wrote his
memoir of the imperial period, published as Yetarik Mastawesha in 1962 E.C.
7) The 1960s:
This period was a crucial decade in the development of Ethiopian historiography for it was in
this period that history emerged as an academic discipline.
a) The opening of the Department of History in 1963 at AAU or HSIU. Many BA (since the end
of the decade), MA (since 1979) and PhD (since 1990) research works were done.
b) The opening of the Institute of Ethiopian Studies (IES), since 1963, with its publication the
Journal of Ethiopian Studies helped research in Ethiopia. Institute housed a number of
historians, including Richard Pankhurst (the first Director), who authored or co-authored
twenty-two books and produced several hundred articles on Ethiopia.
c) The Journal of Oromo Studies (JOS, mainly since the 1991)_ and the publication of some
other books by Paul Baxter, Lambert Bartels, Ulrich Braukamper, Enrico Cerulli,
Asmaron Legesse, Mohammed Hassen and Asafa Jalata has enriched the study of the
Oromo Culture.
8) Africa and the Horn:

Earlier foundational research was done at the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS) in
London and the Department of History at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.
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The professionalization of history in other parts of the Horn is a post-colonial phenomenon. With
the establishment of independent nations, a deeper interest in exploring their own past
emerged among African nations. The decolonization of African historiography required
new methodological approach (tools of investigation) to the study of the past that
involved a critical use of oral data, and the growth of scientific fields like archeology,
anthropology and linguistics; with African own run research institutes and professionals.
1.4. The Geographical Context

The term “Ethiopia and the Horn” refers to that part of Northeast Africa, which now contains the
countries of Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia.
The major physiographic features of the region are a massive highland complex of mountains
and plateaus divided by the Great Rift Valley (running down from Syria to Mozambique) and
surrounded by lowlands, semi-desert, deserts and tropical forests along the periphery.
The diversity of the terrain led to regional variations in climate, natural vegetation, soil
composition, settlement patterns, economic activity and crop production. This diverse land form
is dowelled by different ethnic and religious groups, whose history is shaped by contacts with
others through commerce, migrations, wars, slavery, colonialism, and the waxing and waning of
state systems.
Ethiopia and the Horn has five principal drainage systems:

a) The Nile River_ the Blue Nile (Abay, from Tana Lake area) meets the White Nile in Khartoum.
b) Gibe/Omo–Gojeb_ in southwest Ethiopia liking with Sudan and Keneya.
c) Genale/Jubba-Shebele_ originating in the Eastern highlands, both flow to Somalia and the
Indian Ocean. Genale (Jubba in Somalia) reaches the Indian Ocean; the Shebele disappears in
sand just inside the coastline.
d) The Awash River, _ is entirely confined to Ethiopia, sinking in lowlands of the Danakil
Depression.
e) The Ethiopian Rift Valley Lake systems_ self-contained drainage basin, with a string of
lakes stretching from Lake Ziway in the north to Lake Turkana.
Ethiopia and the Horn can be divided into three major distinct environmental zones.
a) The southeast Highland of Ethiopia_ mainly in Arsi and Bale.
b) The north central highlands of Ethiopia_ from Gondar to Shawa.
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c) The surrounding Lowland areas_ Hot and dry conditions, mainly to the northwest coast,
northeast and southeast Ethiopia; covered by shrub and bush as its major vegetation.
Unit 2: Peoples and Cultures in Ethiopia and the Horn

Ethiopia and the Horn Region is referred to as the cradle of humankind. It is also a region where
early civilizations including food production, making tools and religious practices were initiated;
where early civilization started.
Life started on earth between 3-1 billion years ago. Primates and mammal called Pongidae (such
as gorilla, chimpanzee, orangutan, gibbon etc) emerged 67 million years ago. From the primates
the line of humans called Hominidae (human ancestors) begun to separate 10-6 million years
ago. Lower Omo and Middle Awash River valleys are richest part of the world for the discovery
of the early man on earth (archaeologically).
Fossil named Australopithecus anamensis was discovered around Lake Turkana. A fossil named
Chororapithecus dated 10 million B. P. was unearthed in Anchar (in West Hararghe) in 2007.
Ardipithicus ramidus kadabba (dated 5.8-5.2 million years BP) was discovered in Middle
Awash. Ardipithicus ramidus (dated 4. 2 million B.P.) was discovered at Aramis in Afar in 1994.
Other Australopithecines were uncovered at Belohdelie (dated back 3.6 million years B. P.) in
Middle Awash. A three years old child’s fossil named as Australopithecus afarensis, Selam,
dated to 3.3 million years B.P was also discovered at Dikika, Mille, Afar in 2000. Another
Australopithecus afarnesis (Lucy/Dinkinesh, dated c. 3.18 million years B. P.) with 40%
complete body parts, weight 30kg, height 1.07 meters with a pelvis looks like bipedal female was
discovered at Hadar in Afar in 1974 A. D. An eco-fact named as Australopithecus garhi (means
surprise in Afar language) dated to 2.5 million years B.P was discovered at Bouri, Middle
Awash, between 1996 and 1999.
Walking upright (bipedalism), the arrangement to teeth, the enlargement of the human brain
were the marks of this evolution to the Human line (Hominidae). The evolution led to the
emergence of genus Homo, 3-2 million years ago. Homo Habilis is the first of such human
forms, using the first stone tools called Olduwan (Mode I) (after the Olduvai Gorge). Different
fossils of this specie is recovered in different parts of Ethiopia and the Horn, mainly in the Lower
Omo. The naming of this Homo families is derived from Latin terms ‘Habilis’ (skillful use of
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hands)." While, ‘Homo’ in Latin means simply ‘human being’. The oldest of these stone tools
were discovered in Dikika and Shungura in Afar.
The next human specie, Homo erectus (walking upright) evolved and lived from 2-1 million
years ago, and its fossils were discovered at Melka Kunture, Konso Gardula and Gadeb areas.
Homo erectus represents the first going-out of Africa, beginning of primitive religion and
language. They used the stone tools called Acheulean (Mode II) (after the St. Acheul village in
France). This technology is called hand-ax, hammer or bifacial. Next, Homo sapiens evolved in
east Africa and represent the second wave of going-out of Africa. They use microlithic stone
tools (small and sharp tools made from obsidian), and are associated with the use of fire and
development of knowledge. The fossils of Homo sapiens discovered at Porc Epic near Dire
Dawa, and Kibish around Lower Omo.
Cultural evolution of humans in history is conventionally grouped in to Stone Age (2million to

5,000 year ago), Bronze Age (4-3,000 years ago ) and Iron Age ( 3,000 year ago). The first, the
Paleolithic (Old Stone Age, from 3.4 million to 11, 000 years B. P.) was the period when human
being sheltered in caves. Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age; 11, 000-10,000 B. P.) was transition
between Paleolithic and Neolithic (New Stone Age; 10, 000-6, 000 B.P). The second stage is
man using stone tools with bone, wood, furs, and skin materials to prepare food and clothing.
The last stage represents the production of pottery, basketry, tannery and latter smith.
2.2. Neolithic Revolution

During the Neolithic period human beings transformed from mobile to sedentary way of life.
This was a radical shift involving changes from hunting and gathering to the domestication of
plants and animals. Climatic change and increased hunter-gatherers’ population resulted in the
declining number of animals and availability of plants. The Neolithic revolution started since
11,000 B.C. and it changed human life greatly, in many ways.
The process of domestication took place independently in the various parts of the world. In
Ethiopia and the Horn chiefly in the more elevated and wetter-parts, people cultivated plants
including Teff (Eragrotis teff), dagussa (Eleusine coracana), nug (Guzotia abyssinica), enset
(Ensete ventricosum) etc. The domestication of enset plant (Ensete edule) reduced shifting
cultivation (continuous clearing of new plots), slowing down soil exhaustion. Plus to the above
archaeological places at Laga Oda rock shelter, near Charchar, different stone tools and cave
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painting (of hunters and gatherers) have been found. Evidence for domesticated cattle also comes
from around Lake Basaqa near Matahara.
2.3. The Peopling of the Region

2.3.1. Languages and Linguistic Processes
Ethiopia and the Horn in general is marked by ethnic and linguistic diversity. There are about 90
languages with 200 dialects. Linguists classify languages of Ethiopia and the Horn into two
major language super families. These are Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-Saharan.
1. Afro-Asiatic: this super family is sub-divided into the following families:

a. Cushitic: linguists divided this language family into four branches:
 Northern: is represented by Beja, spoken in northwestern Eritrea bordering the Sudan.
 Central: Agaw includes Awign, Kunfel, Qimant; Hamtanga and Bilen.
 Eastern: this includes diversified linguistic groups like Afar, Ale, Arbore, Baiso, Burji,
Darashe, Dasanech, Gedeo, Hadiya, Halaba, Kambata, Konso, Libido, Mosiye, Oromo,
Saho, Sidama, Somali, Tambaro, Tsemai, etc.
 Southern: represented by Dhalo in Kenya and Nbugua in Tanzania.
b. Semitic: is divided into two:

 North: Ge'ez, Rashaida (spoken around Eritrea-Sudanese border); Tigre (spoken in
Eritrean Lowland); Tigrigna (spoken in highland Eritrea and Tigray).
 South: is further divided into two
 Transverse: Amharic, Argoba, Harari, Silte, Wolane and Zay.
 Outer: Gafat (extinct), Gurage and Mesmes (endangered).
c. Omotic: Anfillo, Ari, Banna, Basketo, Bench, Boro-Shinasha, Chara, Dawuro, Dime, Dizi,
Gamo, Gofa, Hamer, Karo, Keficho, Konta, Korete, Male, Melo, Oyda, Sezo, Shekkacho,
Sheko, Wolayta, Yem, Zayse etc.
2. Nilo-Saharan: Anywa, Berta, Gumuz, Kacipo-Balesi, Komo, Kunama, Kwama, Kwegu,
Majang, Mi'en, Murle, Mursi, Nara, Nu’er, Nyangatom, Opo, Shabo, Suri and Uduk.
2.3.2. Settlement Patterns

A settlement pattern, the distribution of peoples across the landscape, is the results of long
historical processes, and some are dense and other areas sparse.
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Since early times, the Cushitic and Semitic peoples had inhabited the area between the Red Sea
in the east and Blue Nile in the west from where they dispersed to different directions; and the
Cushites have evolved to be the largest linguistic group in Ethiopia, while the Semitics the
second.
2.3.3. Economic Formations

Topographic features and climatic conditions largely influenced economic: agriculture and
pastoralism. While there may be pure pastoralists, it is very rare to think of a farmer without a
head of cattle or two. Likewise, in Ethiopia and the Horn, these two forms of livelihood have
coexisted and quite often intermingled.
Pastoral economy (namely the production of camel, goat, and cattle) is common in the eastern
lowland region, practiced among the Afar, Saho and Somali as well as Karayu and Borana
Oromo. While the Afar and Karrayu have depended on the Awash River, the Somali have owed
a great deal to Wabi Shebelle and Genale (Jubba) Rivers.
The highland plateaus have sustained plough agriculture for thousands of years supporting
sizable populations. Majority of the populations were engaged in mixed farming. In the sparsely
populated western lowland region, they practice pastoralism, shifting agriculture (growing
sorghum, millet, cotton and other crops), and fishing.
2.4. Religion and Religious Processes

2.4.1. Indigenous Religion
What we call indigenous religion includes a variety of religious beliefs and practices, which are
native to the region and followed by the local people since ancient times. A distinctive mark of
indigenous religion is belief in Supreme Being, but special powers are attributed to natural
phenomena, which are considered sacred. Spiritual intermediaries and functionaries over
rituals held in a lot of respect.
Waqeffanna_ among the Oromo is based on the existence of one Supreme Being called Waqa.
Waqa's power is manifested through the spirits called Ayyana.
The major spirits include: Abdar/Dache (soil fertility spirit), Atete (women or human and animal
fertility spirit), Awayi/Tiyyana (sanctity spirit), Balas (victory spirit), Chato/Dora (wild animals
defender), Gijare/ Nabi (father and mother’s sprit), Jaricha (peace spirit), Qasa (anti-disease
spirit) etc.
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Ekera_ The belief that the dead exist in the form of a ghost (spirit) around his/her abode or
cemetery (Hujuba).
Irrecha_a thanks giving festival (every year) and a New Year (Birbo) rite in the autumn and
spring seasons.
Qallu (male) and Qallitti (female)_ are the experts of the religion, intermediating (functioning)
between the Ayyana and the believers. Qallu's ritual house called galma is located on hilltop or in
the groves of large trees. On Wednesday and Friday nights, there is Dalaga/ecstasy at which
Qallu or Qallitti is possessed by Ayyana so that s/he can interpret mysteries. The Jila/Makkala
(delegated messengers) used to make pilgrimage to get consecration of senior Qallu (Abba Muda
or anointment father) until about 1900. Abba Muda had turban surrirufa of tri-colors: black at
top, red at center and white at bottom representing those in pre-active life, active (Luba) and
those in post-active life respectively.
Among the Hadiya the Supreme Being is known as Waa, who is believed to exist before
everything (hundam issancho) or create world (qoccancho) and whose eyes are represented by
elincho (sun) and agana (moon). Spirits like Jara (male’s protector), Idota (female’s guard),
Hausula, Qedane and Warriqa attracted prayers and sacrifices at Shonkolla and Kallalamo
mountains chosen by Anjancho and Jaramanjcho. One of Hadiya's clans, Worqimene, is believed
to have the power to send rain in drought.
The Kambata have Negita or Aricho Magano/Sky God and religious officials known as
Magnancho. The Gedeo called the Supreme Being, Mageno and had thanks giving ceremony
called Deraro.The Konso religion is centered on worship of Waaq/Wakh. The Gojjam Agaw
used to call the Supreme Being Diban (Sky God). Among sections of the Gurage, there have
been Waq/Goita (Supreme Being), Bozha (thunder deity) and Damwamwit (health goddess).
Yem worshipped Ha’o (Sky God). So’ala clan was considered as the top in religious duties as it
was in charge of Shashokam (the most vital deity). Religious functions were performed through
couriers in each village called Magos. The Konta’s spirit-cult was called Docho.
The Wolayta called God Tosa and spirit Ayyana including Tawa-Awa /Moytiliya (father’s spirit)
etc. Annual worship of spirits was performed at a sacred place called Mitta usually at the end of
May and beginning of June to offer sacrifice of the first fruits called Teramo or Pageta
(Dubusha). People gathered around tree called Dongowa. The Wolayta also had the practice of
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Chaganna (prohibited days to work) to protect produce from disaster. Beka (Beqabe) or Baqa
Potilliya (Literally, ritual cattle) is for a birthday fate. If they made error in respecting this
custom, they would anoint their bodies with a leaf called Aydameta (ground red pepper) as
repentance. Religious practitioners known as Sharechuwa had Becha or Kera Eza Keta (ritual
house).
The Keficho called Supreme Being as Yero; spirit as Eqo and a person who hosts Eqo is known
as Alamo or eke-nayo. The Boro-Shinasha people believe in super natural power called Iqa,
which created everything and presides over the universe. They make different rituals and
sacrifice to their God; Gure Shuka to protect their natural/living environment, at the tip of the
mountains; Shode De’na when unexpected disease happens; Marrowa Shuka for children to
grow and to prevent children from evil spirits attack, and for the wealth and harmonious life of
the family. The Nuer believe in Kuoth Nhial (God in Heaven), but believe in the coming of God
through rain, lightning and thunder, and rainbow is necklace of God. There are also spirits
associated with clan-spears names such as WiW (spirit of war) associated with thunder. The Nuer
believe that when a person dies, flesh is committed to earth while breath or life goes back to
Kuoth and soul that signifies human personality remains alive as a shadow or a reflection, and
departs together with ox sacrificed to place of ghosts.
An interesting feature of indigenous religion is the way its practices and beliefs are fused with
Christianity and Islam. This phenomenon of mixing of religions is known as syncretism.
2.4.2. Judaism
Judaism is considered as the expression of the covenant that Yahweh/Jehovah (God) established
with the ancient Hebrew community. Sources indicate that Judaism has been followed in
Ethiopia and the Horn by peoples before Christianity reached the region. The Jews in Ethiopia
appear to have been isolated from mainstream Judiac practice for at least a millennium (during
the exodus of Muse 1400-1200 or come to Ethiopia with Queen of Sheba visiting King Solomon
r. 974-932 B.C.). The Jews developed and lived for centuries in northern and northwestern
Ethiopia.
2.4.3. Christianity
Christianity became state religion in 334 A.D. during the reign of King Ezana (r. 320-360), who
dropped pre-Christian gods like Ares (Hariman/Maharram/war god), Arwe (serpent-python god),
Bahir (sea god) and Midir (earth god), and embraced Christianity.
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Instrumental in conversion of the king were Syrian brothers, Aedesius and Frumentius
(Fremnatos). When Fremnatos (Kasate Birhane or Abba Salama) visited Alexandria, Patriarch
Atnatewos (328-373) appointed him as the first Bishop of Ethiopian Orthodox Church (EOC).
Consecration of bishops from Coptic Church in Egypt continued until 1959, when Abune Baslios
became the first Ethiopian Patriarch.
Christianity was further expanded to the mass of the society during the later part the fifth
century, during the reign of Ella Amida II (478-86) by the Nine Saints. The saints also translated
the Bible and other religious books into Geez. Their origin and dispersal is shown in the table on
pp.35. The expansion of Christianity continued in Zagwe period (1150-1270) and conversion
continued since the early Medieval Period (1270-1527), when many churches and monasteries
were constructed.
From mid-sixteenth to the early seventeenth centuries, the Jesuit missionaries tried to convert
Monophysite EOC to Dyophysite Catholic. Yet, this led to bloody conflicts that in turn led to
expulsion of the Jesuits. However, the Jesuits intervention triggered religious controversies
within the EOC that is discussed in subsequent units.
As of 1804, catholic and protestant missionaries arrived in the country, after a century of closed
door policy by the country (arriving with other economic and political diplomats to the country
signing treaties with the Ethiopian authorities). The Catholic Giuseppe Sapeto (Lazarist mission
founder), Giustino De Jacobis (Capuchin order founder), Cardinal Massaja, Antoine and Arnauld
d'Abbadie were active. Anglican Church Missionary Society (ACMS), Church Missionary
Society of London (CMSL) and Wesleyan Methodist Society led Protestant missionaries under
such leaders as Samuel Gobat, C.W. Isenberg and J. L. Krapf. Systematic approach of trained
Protestants enabled them to win confidence of local people. They translated spiritual books into
vernaculars. They adopted old names for Supreme Being like Waqayyo, Tosa etc and used them
in new versions as equivalent to God. Village schools were established as centers of preaching
the faith. These schools were open to all children of chiefs and farmers. They also provided
medical facilities. All these attracted a large number of followers. Eventually, continuous and
systematic indoctrinations seem to have resulted in grafting of new teaching on indigenous
religion.
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2.4.4. Islam
When Prophet Mohammed had preached Islam in Mecca since 610 AD, he faced opposition
from the Quraysh rulers. Under this circumstance, the Prophet sent some of his early followers to
Aksum including his daughter Rukiya and her husband Uthman as well as the Prophet's future
wives Umm Habiba and Umm Salma to Aksum .The first group of refugees was led by Jafar
Abu Talib. In his advice to his followers, the Prophet said of Ethiopia, "…a king under whom
none are persecuted. It is a land of righteousness, where God will give relief from what you are
suffering." The then Aksumite king, Armah Ella Seham (Ashama b. Abjar or Ahmed al-Nejash
in Arabic sources), gave them asylum from 615-28. Leaders of the Quraysh asked Armah to
repatriate the refugees, but the king did not comply. Armah is replied to them, "If you were to
offer me a mountain of gold I would not give up these people who have taken refugees with me.”
After Islam is established in South Arabia, Islam spread to the Horn of Africa largely through
peaceful ways of trade. Islam was well established in Dahlak (Alalay) Islands on the Red Sea by
the beginning of the 8th c. It was from these coastal areas that Islam gradually spread among the
predominantly pastoral communities of the interior, largely through the agency of preachers and
merchants. Since the entrenched Christianity in the central highland checked the spread of Islam
to the west, the spread of Islam was (radiating) to southeast Ethiopia; and port Zeila was the
main gateway to Shewa, Wollo and Hararghe areas. In the early tenth century, Islam spread to
southeast Ethiopia, mainly along the Long Distance Trade Route and many Muslim communities
and sultanates developed. Sheikh Hussein of Bale, a Muslim saint (Waliy) of medieval period,
played very important role in the expansion of Islam into Bale, Arsi and other southeastern parts
of Ethiopia and the Horn. Another Islamic center in this region is Sof Umar cave.
Unit 3: Politics, Economy and Society in Ethiopia to the End of the

13th C.
3.1. Emergence of States
One important factor for the emergence of states was the beginning of sedentary agriculture.
Peoples had to descend from mountainsides to build houses near cultivated plots fencing both
farming fields and residences, and harvested crops had to be stored and protected from
humidity and rodents. Families preferred to live together forming larger communities for better
security and to help each other. Using stick or hoe for planting was gradually replaced by ox-
drawn plough and farmers acquired surplus produce to exchange with better tools and clothes
with the artisans who were able to specialize in the production of these items. Therefore, states
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were formed mainly through the expansion of agriculture that gave rise to class differentiation.
Furthermore, the growth of trade (intermediating) facilitated the development of states.
State refers to an autonomous political unit having population, defined territory, sovereignty and
government with the power to decree and enforce laws. State was the outcome of regular cultural
process. In this regard, it should be emphasized that, states arose independently in different
places and at different times. Initially religious leaders (shamans) played prominent role in the
formation of the states. As production became market oriented, religious elites were gradually
replaced by chiefs, who collect regular/compulsory tributes, organize army, bureaucracy etc
3.2. Ancient States

A. Punt
Punt was the earliest recorded state in Ethiopia and the Horn. The evidence on Punt comes from
Egyptian hieroglyphic writings, accompanied by vivid paintings that describes series of naval
expeditions, which the Egyptian Pharaohs sent to Punt. Pharaoh Sahure (r. 2743-2731 B.C.) sent
expedition to collect myrrh, ebony and electrum (gold and silver alloy). The best described and
illustrated expedition was the one undertaken by the order of the famous Egyptian Queen
Hatshepsut (1490-1468 B.C.), whose expedition is documented at her tomb in Dier El Bahri.
Iron, bronze, asses, foxes, cattle, animals fur, dying and medicinal plants were also exported
from Punt to Egypt. In return, axes, daggers, swords, knives, sickles, clothes, bracelets,
necklaces, beads and other trinkets were imported from Egypt to Punt. She sent five ships under
the leadership of Black Nubian Captain Nehasi via Wadi-Tumilat. The expedition was able to
return collecting frank incense, cinnamon, sweet smelling woods (sandal), spices, ivory,
rhinoceros horn, leopard and leopard skins, ostrich feathers and egg, live monkeys, giraffes,
people etc. Hatshepsut presented some parts of the items to her god, Amun. It was because of the
ritual importance of their exports that Puntites were also known as Khebis of the Ta Netjeru
(divine or ghosts land).
Scholars have not reached agreement as to the exact location of Punt. The varieties of incense
and myrrh mentioned in the writings have suggested northern or northeastern Somalia to some
scholars while others are inclined more towards Northern Ethiopia because of the reference to
gold, ebony and monkeys. The latter reinforce their guess arguing that at that early period,
Egyptian sailboats might not have been strong enough to pass through the Strait of Bab-el
Mandeb into the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean. Considering the two suggestions, still some
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others argue that it probably stretched from Swakim or Massawa to Babel Mandeb (Gate of
Tears) and Cape Guardafui.
B. Da’amat and Others

The state known as Da’amat had a center a little to the south of Aksum. Inscription of the king of
Da’amat tentatively dated to the fifth century BC shows that he used politico-religious title
known as Mukarib. Various gods and goddesses like Almouqah (principal god), Astarr (Venus
god), Na’uran (light god), Shamsi (sun god), and Sin (moon god) were worshipped in the domain
of the Da’amat state and other northern Ethiopian pre-Aksumite cultural centers. There were
similar practices in South Arabia at the time.
There were a number of cultural centers in northern Ethiopia. The major ones are:
 Yeha: is located 30 kms to the northeast of Aksum and was the oldest of these centers. It
probably emerged around 1, 000 BC (zenith750 to 500 B.C.). Remains of walls of its
buildings is recovered.
 Hawulti Melazo: is situated to southeast of Aksum, where stone tablets that are inscribed
in rectangular temple surrounded by a wall decorated with paintings representing herds of
cattle have been excavated. Addi-Seglemeni: is located at 10kms southwest of Aksum,
the oldest Ethiopian monumental inscription (stone slab) is discovered. There were also
other cultural centers like Addi Gelemo, Addi Grameten, Addi Kewih, Atsbi Dera,
Feqiya, Hinzat, Sefra, Senafe, Tekonda etc.
C. The Aksumite State

The nucleus of the Aksumite state was formed around 200-100 B.C. Initially, its power was
limited to a relatively small area comprising the town of Aksum and its environs. Gradually,
however, it expanded to include large territories in all directions. In its heyday, Aksumite
territories extended from the Red Sea coast in the East to the Western edge of Ethiopian plateau
overlooking the vast Nile Valley in the west and from the northern most corner of Eritrea and
possibly as far south as northern parts of Shewa.
According to Periplus of Erithrean Sea, Adulis was the major port of Aksum. The long distance
trade routes from Adulis and other posts on the Red Sea coast passed inland through such centers
as Kaskasse, Coloe, Matara and even further west across Takaze River. Export consisted mainly
of the natural products (mentioned above). In turn, a number of manufactured products like
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garments and textiles from Egypt, India, the Roman Empire, and Persia; glassware and jewelry
from Egypt and other places; metallic sheets, tools or utensils of various kinds, oil and wine from
the regions of Roman Empire and Syria were imported. Zoscales (c. 76-89), the then king of
Aksum, used to speak the Greek language, the Lingua Franca of Greco-Roman world. Aksum
also had relations with Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Laodicea (Asia Minor).
The Adulis inscription written in Greek about an unknown king, which eventually was published
in Cosmas Indicopleustes’ book, the Christian Topography, describes commercial activities of
the Red Sea areas. It also mentions the internal long distance trade between Aksum and a distant
region called Sasu, most probably in Beni Shangul and the adjoining lands beyond the Blue Nile.
A big caravan made up of close to five hundred merchants some of them special agents of the
kings of Aksum would take to Sasu cattle, lumps of salt (probably salt blocks) and iron to
exchange for gold. Yet, as they did not speak each other’s language, and did not even trust to be
near to each other to bargain through signs and gestures, the whole exchange was done without
one side seeing the other. This was a good example of silent trade.
Aksum’s involvement in South Arabian region military started since 200 A.D. and a good
example is the Aksumite king is Gadarat. From the third to the seventh centuries, Aksumite
kings like Aphilas, Endybis, Wazeba, Ezana, Ousanas II, etc. minted and issued different kinds
of coins in gold, silver and bronze for both overseas and local transactions. Aksum was one of
the four great powers of the world (i. e. Roman Empire, Persia, China and Aksum) at the time. It
was a major naval and trading power from the first to the seventh centuries. Aksumite ships were
the main means of transporting goods. Aksum was the only one with sufficient sources of timber
for ship building and in those days, the technology for it existed in Adulis. Aksum had a large
fleet of ships, which was used not only for trade but also for its wars across the Red Sea.
Kaleb (r. 500-35) expanded overseas territories of Aksum beyond Himyar and Saba, but the local
prince Dhu-Nuwas was converted to Judaism, marched to Zafar and Nagran, and killed many
Christians. Byzantine Vasaliev Justinian (r. 527-65) with sanctification of Patriarch Timit III
(518-538) provided Kaleb with a number of ships to transport armies led by Julianos and
Nonossus against Dhu Nuwas. Dhu Nuwas was defeated and Kaleb appointed Abraha as
governor of Arabia that continued until 570 A. D. Kaleb was succeeded by his son Gabra Masqal
(535-48) who built a church at Zur Amba in Gayint. It was during Gabra Maskal that Yared
developed Ethiopian Orthodox Church liturgical songs and hymns.
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The Aksumite state begun to decline since the late seventh century because of internal and
external challenges. Environmental degradation, decline in agricultural productivity and possibly
plague infestation started to weaken it. With the destruction of the port of Adulis by the Arabs
around 702, the international lifeline of the state was cut. The whole network of Aksumite
international trade came under the control of the rising and expanding Arab Muslims, isolating
the Aksum state from its old commercial and diplomatic partners. Consequently, the Aksumite
state declined economically. This naturally led to the decline of its political and military power
not only on the Red Sea coast but also in its interior provinces, where Aksumite hegemony was
challenged by local rebellions. The recurring rebellions of the Beja, the Agaw and Queen Bani al
Hamwiyah (Yodit) finally sealed the collapse of the Aksumite state.
However, as a civilization, Aksum had a profound impact upon the peoples of the Horn of Africa
and beyond, and on its successors i.e. the Zagwe, ‘Solomonic Dynasty’, the Gondarine period
etc. Some of its achievements include Sub-Saharan Africa’s only surviving indigenous script and
calendar as well as EOC hymns and chants, paintings etc; diversified ceramic and lithic tools,
ivory curving, and urbanization and sophisticated building traditions (palaces, stele, rock-hewn
churches…). It also developed complex administrative and governance system, and agricultural
system including irrigation etc.
D. Zagwe Dynasty
After its decline, the center of Aksumite state shifted southwards to Kubar rural highland in the
territory of the Agaw, one of the ancient inhabitants of the land between the Eritrean Plateau and
Jema River, and to the west up to the Blue Nile valleys. This apparently gave Agaw elites the
opportunity to take part in Aksumite state structure serving as soldiers and functionaries for at
least four centuries. After integrating so well with Aksumite ruling class, they successfully took
over the state administration. Accordingly, the Agaw prince Merra Teklehaimanot married
Masobe Worq, the daughter of the last Aksumite king Dil Na'od. Later he overthrew his father-
in-law and took control of power. Merra-Teklehaimanot's successors include Yimirahana
Kirstos, Harbe, Lalibela (1160-1211), Ne'akuto La'ab, Yetbarek etc. Notwithstanding the
debates, the Zagwe Dynasty is believed to have ruled from c. 1150 to 1270.
The Zagwe Dynasty made its center in Bugna District within Wag and Lasta, more exactly at
Adafa near Roha (Lalibela). The territory of the Zagwe kingdom extended from most of the
highland provinces of the ancient Aksumite kingdom in the north down to northern Shewa in the
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south, the Lake Tana region and the northern part of what is today Gojjam in the west. The Agaw
maintained the ancient Aksumite traditions almost intact. Zagwe rulers renewed cultural and
trade contact with eastern Mediterranean region. The most important export items included
slaves, ivory and rare spices while cotton, linen, silver and copper vessels, various types of drags
and, newly minted coins were imported.
Furthermore, the Zagwe period was a golden age in Ethiopia's paintings and the translation of
some religious works from Arabic into Ge'ez. That said, Zagwe rulers are best known for the
construction of cave, semi-hewn and monolithic churches:
1. Cave: with some decoration inside, almost similar with natural cave, eg. Bete-Mesqel.
2. Semi-hewn: this and the monolithic churches that have become UNESCO world heritage are
unique in costructions. Semi-hewan are with detailed interior decoration and partial decoration
outside. They are not totally separated from the surrounding rock. Their roofs or walls are still
attached to the rock, eg. Bete Denagil, Bete Debresina/Mikael, Bete Golgota, Bete Merqoriwos,
Bete Gabri’el-Rufa’el and Bete Abba Libanos.
3. Monolithic: with detailed decoration in the interior and exterior parts. They are completely
separated (carved out) from surrounding rock, eg. Bete Amanuel, Bete Giyorgis, Bete Mariyam
and Bete Medhanialem. Among the eleven churches of Lalibela, Bete Medhanelem is the largest
of all and Bete Giyorgis is said to be the most finely built in the shape of the Cross.
Lalibela wanted to establish the second Jerusalem, and mitigate or even avoid difficulties, which
Ethiopian Christians encountered in their journey to the Holy Lands. This was done by
constructing churches based on the model of Holy Lands in Israel.
The Zagwe Dynasty came to end due to internal problems of royal succession and oppositions
from groups claiming descent from the ancient rulers of Aksum. The latter considered Zagwe
kings “illegitimate rulers” based on the legend of the Queen of Sheba. The legend was in turn
based on a book known as Kebra-Negest (Glory of Kings) that was translated from Coptic to
Arabic and then into Ge’ez. Based on the legend, the power claimants contend that “Solomonic”
Dynasty ruled the Aksumite state until its power was “usurped” by the Zagwes. Yekuno-Amlak
(r. 1270-1285), who claimed decent from the last Aksumite king Dilna’od, organized his forces
with the assistance of the ecclesiastical hierarchy and engaged the last king of Zagwe, Yetbarek
in battle. Yetbarek was killed in Gaynt and Yekuno-Amlak took the state power proclaiming the
“restoration” of “Solomonic” Dynasty.
3.2.2. East, Central, Southern, and Western States
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3.2.2.1. Bizamo, Damot, Enarya and Gafat

A. Bizamo: was a kingdom located on the southern bend of Abay River just opposite to the
present districts of Gojjam and around the current Wambara area. It was founded in the eighth
century and had early connections with Damot.
B. Damot: was a strong kingdom that expanded its territories into most of the lands the south of
Abay and north of Lake Turkana as well as west of Awash and east of Didessa. Motalami was a
prominent king of Damot in the thirteenth century.
C. Enarya: was a kingdom in the Gibe region in southwestern Ethiopia. The royal clan was
Hinnare Bushasho (Hinnario Busaso). Enarya's kingship was a divine one: the king (Hinnare-
Tato) was secluded and considered as sacred. He communicated with visitors through an
intermediary, AfeBusho.The real power rested with Mikretcho (council) including Awa-rasha
(king's spokesperson) and Atche-rasha (royal treasurer). The kings had residences in Yadare and
Gowi. In the 19th c., Aksumite king Digna-Jan is said to have led a campaign into Enarya,
accompanied by Orthodox Christian priests carrying arks of covenant (tabots).
D. Gafat: historically, the territory of Gafat lies south of Abay (Blue Nile) River adjoining
Damot on the south western periphery of the Christian Kingdom. It was inhabited by Semitic
speaking population related to Harari and the Gurage. It is not clear from available records
whether the Gafat formed a “state” or not, but Gafat mountains provided a rich source of gold.
Despite efforts by Christian evangelists, the Gafat largely remained practitioners of their own
indigenous religion. As of early medieval period, Gafat was paying tribute to the Christian
Kingdom mainly in cattle, which came from six districts, among which Gambo and Shat are
Gafat clan names. The state was governed by rulers bearing the title of Awalamo.
3.2.2.2. Muslim Sultanates
After the spread of Islam since the beginning of the eighth century, viable Muslim communities
and states had been established at many locations especially along the main trade routes from
Zeila and its many branches penetrating the interior. These states include:
A. Shewa: Makhzumi Khalid ibn al-Walid, who claimed decent from Meca, set up the
Makhzumite Sultanate in 896 A. D (283 A.H.) on northeastern foothill of Shewa.
B. Fatagar: was founded around Minjar, Shenkora and Ada’a in the eleventh century. It was a
hilly lowland area with thoroughly cultivated fields of wheat and barley, fruits, and extensive
grazing grounds full of numerous herds of cattle, sheep and goats.
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C. Dawaro: located south of Fatagar between upper waters of Awash and Wabi-Shebelle
extending to Charchar in Northeast and Gindhir in Southeast. We have valuable information on
Dawaro by an Egyptian courtier Ibn Fad Allah el-umari. It was much smaller than Ifat, but
resembled it in many aspects. Dawaro had a currency called hakuna for transaction .
D. Bali: was an extensive kingdom occupying high plateau, separating basins of Shebelle and
Rift valley Lakes. It was separated from Dawaro by the Wabi-Shebelle River and extended
southwards to the Gannale Dirre River. Bali was one of the largest of Ethiopia’s Muslim
provinces. Its economic activity resembles those of other nearby Muslim lands. Trade was
mainly based on barter exchanging cattle, sheep, cloth etc. It had strong army composed of
cavalry and infantry.
E. Ifat: was a state located adjacent to Shewan Sultanate. Its territory ran from northeast-
southwesterly in the Afar plain eastward to the Awash. It was established by Umar Walasma,
who claimed descent t from Hashamite clan and said to have come from Arabia between 1271
and 1285. He intervened between quarrelsome Makzumite princes Dil-Marrah and Dil-Gamis,
weakened and annexed the sultanate of Shewa. The sultanate was fertile and well watered. Its
inhabitants earned their living from cultivation of wheat, sorghum, millet and teff, and animal
husbandry. Sugar cane, bananas, variety of fruits, beans, squashes, cucumbers, and cabbage
completed the diet. Chat was described for the first time as being consumed as a stimulant.
F. Others: autonomous states mutually independent states like Arababani (between Hadiya and
Dawwaro), Biqulzar, Dera (between Dawaro and Bali), Fadise, Gidaya, Hargaya, Harla,
Kwilgora, Qadise, Sharkah (West of Dawaro and North of Bali in Arsi) and Sim were
established and flourished.
3.3. External Contacts
Following the introduction of Christianity, Aksum established close relationship with the East
Roman or Byzantine Empire with which it shared common commercial interest in the Red Sea
area against their rival Persians. Yet, in the seven century, this relation became complicated and
began to deteriorate. Successive Egyptian Muslim rulers began to use the consecration and
sending of a bishop as an instrument to further their own foreign policy objectives and to squeeze
concessions from Ethiopian Christian rulers, who reacted by threatening to divert the Nile. The
Mamluk in Egypt and the rise of the Ottomans in the Middle East presented a barrier to the
contacts between Christian Ethiopia and European states.
21
However, the tradition to visit Jerusalem and other holy places in the Middle East had begun at
the end of the first millennium AD; mainly through Cairo to the Holy land. Consequently, there
were considerable numbers of Ethiopian Christian communities found in different regions, in
Egyptian monasteries, in the holy places of Palestine and Armenia, and in Italian city-states in
subsequent centuries. The communities living in different parts of the world served as an
important link or bridge between Ethiopian Christian Kingdom and Europe. From this
information, the Europeans began to consider Ethiopian Christian Kingdom as a very powerful
and wealthy state existing in the Horn of Africa. Consequently, they wanted to use this
imaginary strong Christian power in their struggle against the Muslim powers in the Holy land.
Around the middle of the 12th century, a myth about a very rich and powerful Christian ruler
known as Prester John began to circulate in Europe. Then, they began to search for the location
of the Kingdom and to make an alliance with it.
3.4. Economic Formations
A. Agriculture and Land Tenure System
The main stay of ancient states' economy in highland areas was plough agriculture. The mastery
of the technology of irrigation also contributed to the growth of agricultural production. The way
members of a society hold, share and use land constitute what is known as the land tenure
system. The most ancient system of land holding which survived in many parts of Ethiopia and
the Horn is the communal land tenure system. Communal right to land is a group right. Here
group refers to the family, the clan and the other lineage groups to which the individual
belonged. Each of these groups had communal right to the land they lived in and freely exploited
the resources of the land.
Peasants in the north had rist rights in their respective areas. Rist is a kind of communal
birthright to land by members of the families and clans whose ancestors had settled and lived in
the area over long periods. It is inherited from generation to generation in accordance to
customary law. Most of the subjects of the state had rist rights. The rist owners were known as
bale-rist. Yet, they paid tributes to the state and all land belonged to the state theoretically.
Tribute was collected through a complex hierarchy of state functionaries or officials who were
given gult right over the areas and populations they administered on behalf of the central
government. Gult is a right to levy tribute on rist owners’ produce. The tribute collected by
bale-gults, partly allotted for their own up keep and the rest were sent to the imperial center. Gult
22
right that became hereditary was called Riste-Gult as prominent well-placed officials used to
transfer their position to their offspring.
B. Handicraft
Indigenous handcraft technology had existed since the ancient period. The social, economic and
political conditions of ancient states had allowed the emergence of artisans in various fields with
diverse forms and applications including metal work, pottery, tannery, carpentry, masonry,
weaving, jewelry, basketry and others. Metal workers produced spears’ points, swords ,
javelins, bows, arrows, traps, slings, slashers, shields, knives, axes, sickles, hoes, ploughshares,
spades, machetes, hatchets, iron tripods, ornaments etc. Carpenters engaged in carving wood
implements like doors, windows, stools, chairs, tables, beds, headrests, mortars, bowls, beams,
yoke, stilt, coffins etc while potters produced ceramic utensils like saucepan, ovens, jar, pot,
kettle, cooking tripod, plates, granary etc. Tanners produced leather tools used for bed, bed
cover, saddles, harness, ropes, footwear, prayer mats, sacks, honey and butter container, drinking
cup and clothes until replaced by weavers’ cotton dresses. However, except the carpenters and
masons in some cases, the artisans were mostly despised and marginalized. Consequently, the
locally produced agricultural implements and house furniture did not show any significant
improvement and sophistication.
C. Trade
Trade was another important economic activity of ancient states that obtained considerable
income from both internal and international trade. The region was crisscrossed by various trade
routes connecting various market places in all directions, including a network of roads connected
the coast with the interior centers. The regular flow of trade was so vital to the states in that one
of their major concerns was to protect the trade routes and make them safe from robbers.
3.5. Socio-cultural Achievements

A. Architecture
There were totally fifty eight steles in and around Aksum that can be grouped into well made and
decorated, half completed and megaliths (not hewn). As local tradition says, the steles were
engraved specifically at Gobodara from which they were transported and planted in Aksum. The
longest one of these stele measures 33meters heights (the first in the world). It is highly
decorated in all of its four sides. It represents a-14 storied building with many windows and a
false door at the bottom. It also bears pre-Christian symbols, which are a disc and a crescent (half
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moon) at the top. Some scholars suggest that this giant stele was broken while the people were
trying to erect it. The second longest obelisk measures 24 meters height that was successfully
erected and represents a ten-storied building with many windows and a false door at the bottom.
The third longest stele measures 21 meters and represents a nine-storied building with many
windows and a false door at the bottom. It is smooth at the back of its side with no decoration.
The Zagwe churches are regarded as some of the finest architecture of artistic achievements of
the Christian world.
B. Writing System
The Sabean language had an alphabet with boustrophedon writing type that is paleographical
writing from left to right and right to left alternatively. The earliest Sabean inscriptions in Eritrea
and Ethiopia date to the ninth century BC. One peculiar feature of Sabean inscriptions is absence
of vowels as most of the words are written in consonants. For instance, Da’amat was inscribed as
D’mt, while its successive kings are written as RDM, RBH and LMN using title, mlkn.
After the seventh and sixth centuries BC, however, variants of script arose, evolving in the
direction of the Geʽez script (an alpha syllabary). This evolution can be seen most clearly in
evidence from inscriptions mainly graffiti on rocks and caves. By the first century AD, "Geʽez
alphabet" arose, an abjad (26 consonant letters only) written left-to-right with letters identical to
the first-order forms of modern vocalized alphabet.
Though the first completely vocalized texts known are inscriptions by Ezana (who left trilingual
inscriptions in Greek, Sabean and Ge'ez) c. 330 AD, vocalized letters predate him by some years,
as vocalized letter exists in Wazeba’s coin some 30 or so years before. The process was
developed under the influence of Christian scripture by adding vocalic diacritics for vowels, u, i,
a, e, ə, o, to the consonantal letters in a recognizable but slightly irregular way, so that the system
is laid out as a syllabary. Ethiopia's ancient indigenous writing system has immense contribution
to the development of literature, art and the writing of history.
C. Calendar
People needed to know and remember the times when the rains would begin and end as well as
the rise and fall of the water level. The responsibility of understanding these vital climatic cycles
fell on expertise. In due course, calendars were invented. In most cases, the length of the month
was based on the movement of the moon or the apparent movement of the sun. Otherwise, the
number of days in the week or in the year varied from region to region.
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The Oromo calendar has been based on astronomical observations of moon in conjunction with
seven or eight particular stars or group of stars called Urjii Dhahaa (guiding stars) and Bakkalcha
(morning star). There are 29.5 dates in a month and 354 days in 12 months of a year. Pillars
(dated 300 B.C.), which were discovered in northwestern Kenya from 1978-86 by
Archaeologists Lynch, Robbins and Doyl have suggested to represent site used to develop
Oromo calendar. In connection with this, c. 900 A. D. Oromo person Waqlim is said to have
taken art of shaping phallic bowls to Zimbabwe.
The Sidama calendar rotates following movements of stars with 13 months a year, 12 of which
are divided equally into 28 days while the thirteenth month has 29 days. The Sidama week has
only 4 days (Dikko, Dela, Qawado and Qawalanka) and hence each month has 7 weeks.
Nominated Mote (King) is presented to Fiche Chambalala, New Year ritual, for Qetela or
popular demonstration.
Ethiopic solar calendar has 12 months of 30 days plus 5 or 6 (is added every 4 years)
Epagomenal days, which comprise a thirteenth month. A gap of 7–8 years between Ethiopic and
Gregorian calendars results from alternative calculation in determining date of Annunciation.
Thus, the first day of the year, 1 Meskerem/Enkutatash is usually September 11 (Gregorian).
However, it falls on September 12 in years before the Gregorian leap year. The Ethiopic solar
calendar has evolved to become the official calendar of the country.
The Muslim (Islamic) calendar is a lunar calendar consisting of 12 months in a year of 354 or
355 days. It employs the Hijra year of 622 AD, in which Mohammed and his followers made
flight from Mecca to Medina and established the first Muslim community (ummah). Dates in this
era are usually denoted AH (After Hijra, "in the year of the Hijra"). Years prior to the Hijra are
reckoned as BH ("Before the Hijra"). Other peoples like the Agaw, Halaba, Hadiya, Wolayta,
Gedeo, the Nilotes, etc have their own dating system.
D. Numerals_ Numerals appeared in Ethiopia and the Horn at the beginning of fourth century
AD. Geʽez uses numeral system comparable to the Hebrew, Arabic and Greek numerals, but it
lacks individual characters for multiples of 100. Numbers are over- and underlined in proper
typesetting, combined to make a single bar, but some less sophisticated fonts cannot render this
and show separate bars above and below each character. pp42-59
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Unit 4: Politics, Economy and Society from the Late 13th to the
Beginning of the 16th C.
4.1. The “Restoration” of the “Solomonic’’ Dynasty
The rulers of the “Solomonic” Dynasty claimed that they were descendants of the last king of
Aksum and hence, they were legitimate to take over state power from the “illegitimate” rulers of
the Zagwe dynasty. As the claim has no historical evidence, the name “Restoration” is put in
quotation mark. Similarly, the name “Solomonic” is placed in quotation marks because the claim
of descent from King Solomon of Israel is legendary. The claim has been elaborated in the
Kibre Negest (“Glory of Kings”) that associated Ethiopia with the Judeo-Christian tradition. The
Kibre Negest claims that Ethiopian ruling class descended from the line of Menilek I, son of the
Queen of Sheba and King Solomon of Israel. As a result, Ethiopian monarchs from Yikuno-
Amlak to Emperor Haile-Silassie I claimed descent from Menilek I.
4.2.1. Succession Problem and the Establishment of a ‘Royal Prison’ at Amba Gishen
Following the end of the reign of Yikuno-Amlak in 1285, a political instability caused by
constant power struggles among his sons and grandsons for succession occurred. A letter written
by Yegba-Tsion (r.1285-94) to the Sultan of Egypt and the Patriarch of Alexandria in 1290
reflected the existence of those struggles. The power struggle intensified during the reigns of
Yegba-Tsion’s five sons who reigned from 1294 to 1299. The succession problem seems to have
been partly resolved in 1300 during the reign of Widim-Ra’ad (r. 1299-1314) following the
establishment of a 'royal prison' at Amba-Gishen located in present day southern Wollo where all
male members of the royal family were confined until one among them was installed in power.
Loyal soldiers to the reigning monarch guarded the royal prison. When the monarch died, court
dignitaries would send an army to the royal prison to escort the designated successor and put him
on the throne. This practice continued until Amba-Gishen was destroyed by Imam Ahmad
Ibrahim Al-Ghazi's force in 1540. 61
4.2.2. Consolidation and Territorial Expansion of the Christian Kingdom

From 1270 until the establishment of Gondar in 1636, the medieval monarchs had no permanent
capital. Initially, the center of the “restored” dynasty was in medieval Amhara (today’s South
Wollo) around Lake Haiq. However, it gradually shifted southward to the districts of Menz,
Tegulet, Bulga, and finally to the regions dominated by the great height of the Yerer, Entoto,
Menagesha, Wachacha, Furi and Zequalla mountains.
After coming to power, Yikuno-Amlak embarked on consolidating his authority throughout the
empire. In this regard, he quickly subdued Ifat, the Muslim center adjacent to Shewa. Yet, until
the coming of Amde-Tsion (r.1314-44), the center and the territorial limit of the Christian
Kingdom was mainly in present day Tigray, Lasta, medieval Amhara and Shewa. Amde-Tsion
embarked on a policy of a wider and rapid territorial expansion. His main motives of
expansion were economic and political i.e. to control the trade routes and seize territories.
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Amde-Tsion expanded his territory into Agaw (Awi) of Gojjam around 1323/4; Bizamo and
Damot in 1316/7; Bete-Israel (located between Dambiya and Tekeze River) around 1332; and
the Red Sea Coast and Tigray. In 1325, Amde-Tsion campaigned to today’s Eritrean region.
After controlling the whole region, he appointed a governor with a title of Ma'ekale-Bahir, which
later on changed to Bahire-Negash. In the southeast, Muslim sultanates paid tributes to the
Christian Kingdom. In the south, Gurage speaking areas and a few of the Omotic kingdoms like
Wolayta and Gamo were brought under the influence of the Christian state. Amde-Tsion was in
full control of all the trade routes and sources of trade of the Ethiopian region in the early 1330s.
The consolidation and territorial expansion of the Christian Kingdom continued during his
successors.
4.2.3. Evangelization, Religious Movements, and Religious Reforms of Zara-Yaqob

I. Evangelization
Following the conquest and the footsteps of Amde-Tsion, Eyesus-Mo'a preached Christianity in
the central part of Ethiopia. Abune Tekle-Haymanot (thirteenth century) played a key role in
reviving Christianity in Shewa, which was followed by the evangelization of areas in southern
Ethiopia including medieval Damot. He baptized and converted Motalami to Christianity. The
clergy, under the direction of the bishop in Ethiopia, Yaqob, spread Christianity to different areas
of Shewa such as Kil'at, Tsilalish, Merhabite, Wereb, Moret and Wegda, and Fatagar, Damot,
Waj and Enarya.
II. Religious Movements
A. The Ewostatewos Movement
Monasticism became a dominant practice in Ethiopian Orthodox Church in the mid-13th c. The
period witnessed development of monasticism and religious movements of which the major one
was the Ewostatewos movement, named after the founder. Ewostatewos established his own
monastic community in Sara'e (in present day Eritrea). There, he was joined by many students
and taught until about 1337. Among his teachings was the strict observance of Sabbath. When
he was opposed by an organized religious rival group of the clergy in Sera'e, he fled the country
to Egypt. He faced the same opposition in Cairo by Ethiopian pilgrims. His followers, including
Abba Absad, Bekimos, Merkoryewos and Gebre–Iyasus (who mainly returning home from
Armenia), spread the movement to areas like Enfraz, northern Tigray, and Hamessen. The King
and the Abun opposed the movement. Hence, the anti-Ewostatewos group led by the Abbot of
the Hayq Monastery called Aqabe-Se’at Sereqe-Birhan was supported by the Abun and the
monarch. The monarch imprisoned some of the Ewostatians owing to the fact that he feared that
dispute in the church could divide his kingdom. The clergy expelled Ewostatians from their
church services; some of the Ewostatians were forced to withdraw and settle in peripheral areas
while some of them sustained their movement in monasteries like Debre- Bizen, Debre-San, etc.
B. Deqiqe Estifanos/ the Estifanosites
The Estifanosites were a movement within Ethiopian monasticism, called so after their founder
and spiritual leader Abba Estifanos (born in Agame at the end of the 14th c.). The movement
rose to prominence in the 15th c. and continued until the 16th c., when it was formally reconciled
with the main body of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. He established a rigid monastic
27
organization, which emphasized poverty, absolute self-subsistence, equality and autonomy

from secular authorities. Estifanos appears to have challenged Zara-Yaqob religion initiatives,
rejecting the royal supremacy and authority in spiritual matters. Zara-Yacob took very harsh
measures against the Estifanosites allegedly for their opposition of the veneration of St. Mary.
Naod appears to have been more favorably inclined towards the Estifanosites, both sides
softening their position, and the monarch and the bishop lifting excommunications on
Estifanosites.
III. The Religious Reforms of Emperor Zara-Yaqob
Emperor Zara-Yaqob (r.1434-68) took several measures to stabilize and consolidate the
Orthodox Church. First, he settled the conflict among the Ethiopian clergy in order to create an
amicable church-state relationship. In this regard, he made peace with the House of Ewostatewos
by reviving Sabbath in the Ethiopian church and the Ewostatian agreed to receive Holy orders
from the Ethiopian prelates. Further, he urged the clergy to preach Christianity in remote
areas. Besides, he ordered the people to observe fasting on Wednesdays and Fridays and get
Father Confessors. The king encouraged the establishment of a library in every church. This
was followed by revival of religious literature. He himself wrote some books like Metsafe-
Birhan, Metsafe-Me’lad, Metsafe-Sillasie, Metsafe-te'aqebo Mister,etc. In addition, during his
reign, some parts of Te’amre-Maryam were translated from Arabic to Geez.
4.3. Political and Socio-Economic Dynamics in Muslim Sultanates

A number of strong sultanates had emerged since the fourteenth century. Trade was one of the
major factors that resulted in the rise and development of those states; and remained a major
source of conflict between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim sultanates.
4.3.1. The Rise of Adal

After its establishment, Ifat conducted a series of campaigns against its neighbouring sultanates
thereby extending its hegemony over these areas. It also resisted the expansion of the Christian
Kingdom. However, one branch of the Walasma family, which realized that Ifat was becoming
an easy target to the Christian Kingdom due to its location, moved further to the southeastern
lowlands and established new and vigorous Muslim Sultanate of Adal in the highland districts
around Harar in 1367. The first center of this extended Walasma Dynasty was at a place called
Dakar, a place located to the southeast of Harar. The Walasma family consolidated its power in
the new center, and began another phase of military campaigns against the frontiers of the
Christian Kingdom. The center of Adal in 1520 changed to the city of Harar and after the defeat
of Imam Ahmed; a growing threat from a new force-the Oromo forced the sultanate to change its
capital to Awsa in 1576/7, to the present Afar region.
4.3.2. Trade and the Expansion of Islam

Islam spread into the central and southwestern parts of the Ethiopian region through Muslim
merchants and preachers. Trade served as channel for the expansion of Islam in the Muslim
Sultanates while at the same time it formed the base of the economy of those states. The most
known Muslim Sultanates during this period were Ifat (1285-1415) and Adal (1415-1577). The
main trade outlet shifted to Zeila and the old city-states of Mogadishu, Brava, and Merca were
28
used as ports for their hinterland. In the meantime, for the trade in the northeast, Massawa
served as an outlet. With the revival of trade, different towns and trade centers emerged along
the route from Zeila to the interior. Market centers include Weez-Gebeya in western Shewa,
Suq-Wayzaro in old Damot, Suq-Amaja and Gandabalo on the Ifat-Awsa route, Wasel near what
is today Ware-Illu, Qorqora/Qoreta (north of Waldiya) and Mandalay in southern Tigray and the
towns of Dabarwa, the seat of the Bahre-Negash (“Lord of the Sea”) in Asmara.
4.4. Rivalry between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates
Zeila was the main outlet to the sea during the medieval period. The ambition to control this
trade route and commodities that passed through Zeila led to rivalry between the “Solomonic”
rulers and the Sultanate of Ifat. The first recorded conflict between the Christian Kingdom and
Ifat took place in 1328 when the Muslim Sultanates organized their armies to take military action
against the Christian Kingdom. The Sultan of Ifat, Haqaddin I stopped merchants belonging to
the Christian King, Amde-Tsion, confiscating the goods, capturing, and imprisoning the king's
agent, Ti’iyintay returning from Cairo. These actions forced Amde-Tsion to wage a campaign
against Haqaddin I; defeated and took him prisoner and eventually replaced him by his brother
Sabradin. Sabradin later rebelled, but Ifat was defeated and Sabradin was captured during his
retreat. As a result, Ifat, Fatagar and Dawaro were incorporated. Amde-Tsion required from them
annual tributes and freedom of movement for all caravans through Zeila.
It was owing to these developments that some members of the Walasma moved their seat of
power further east to Adal, from where they continued their struggle. To check their attacks on
the highlands, the successors of Emperor Amde-Tsion conducted repeated campaigns into the
lowlands. In 1376, Haqadin II came to power and refused to pay tribute and rebelled against
Neway-Maryam (r. 1371-80), the son of Amde-Tsion. However, he died fighting in 1386.
Similarly, the successor of Haqadin II, Sa’d ad-Din II (c. 1386-1402) gained initial success until
king Dawit I (r. 1380-1412) in 1402/3 extended his expansion and defeated him. Sa’d ad-Din II
became refuge in Zeila until King Yishaq (r.1413-30) killed him in 1415. Since then the area was
called "the land of Sad ad-Din." Following the death of Sa’d ad-Din and loss of Zeila to
Christian Kings, the Muslim sultanates declined in power. Sa’d ad-Din’s sons who took refuge in
Yemen came back to succeed their father. Yet, Adal continued to challenge the Christian state
and were successful in killing Tewodros (1412-13) and Yeshaq. This led to intense struggle for
predominance.
During the mid-fifteenth century, Emperor Zara Yaqob gained some access to the Red Sea. In
1445, Zara Yaqob defeated Sultan Ahmed Badlay at the battle of Yeguba. As a result, the son
and successor of Ahmed Badlay, Mohammed Ahmed (r.1445-71) sent a message of submission
to Ba’ede Mariam (r. 1468-78) to become a vassal. On the death of Mohammed, however, Adal
was still strong and continued its struggle. Hence, the reigning monarch, Ba’ede-Mariam
campaigned against Adal. Despite initial successes, the army of Ba'ede-Mariam lost the battle in
1474. The successors of Ba'ede-Mariam were not effective war leaders. Among the various
Sultans of the Muslim sultanates, Emir Mahfuz carried out some effective military campaigns
into the highlands. In 1517 Emir Mahfuz died fighting against Emperor Lebne-Dengel's (r.
1508-40) force and his son-in-law, Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, popularly known as
29
Ahmed Gragn or the "left-handed" took over the leadership. Apart from this hostile relation,
however, there were wider peaceful socio-economic and cultural interactions between the
Christian Kingdom and Muslim principalities. The period witnessed the flourishing of Geez and
Arabic literature as is evident from the works of Abba Giorgis Ze-Gasicha, Zara-Ya'iqob (the
philosopher); and through the works of Arab writers such as Ibn Fadil al Umari, Ibn Khaldun and
others.
4.5. External Relations

4.5.1. Relations with Egypt
From the late thirteenth century onwards, the Christian Kingdom continued to maintain relations
with Egypt, which was mainly religious in character. In 1272, Yekuno-Amlak sent an emissary
to Egypt’s Sultan, Baybars, requesting an Abun from the Coptic Church. Furthermore, both
Egypt and Ethiopia continued to act as protectors of religious minorities in their respective
domain. Egypt also wanted to ensure secure flow of the Nile (the Abay River) that originated
from Ethiopia.
In the early fourteenth century, Mohammed ibn Qala’un persecuted the Copts and destroyed their
churches in Cairo. In response, Amde-Tsion demanded the restoration of the churches and
warned that failure to do so would result in the diversion of the Nile waters. Patriarch Marqos
(1348- 63) sent a message to Sayfa-Arad (r.1344-71), revealing his imprisonment by the then
Egyptian Sultan. Sayfa-Arad is said to have mobilized a huge army against Egypt after which the
Sultan released the patriarch and sent a delegation to the King. Besides, Patriarch Matewos
(1328-1408) delegated by the Sultan, established harmonious relations between King Dawit and
Egypt. The Sultan is said to have sent a piece of the "True Cross" and in return, Dawitis said to
have given a number of religious paintings to the Sultan. In 1437/8, Zara-Yaqob wrote a friendly
letter to Sultan Barsbay requesting the protection of Christians in Egypt. Three years later,
however, Patriarch Yohannes XI wrote Zara-Yaqob a letter stating the demolition of the famous
church of Mitmaq (Debre-Mitmaq). Then Zara-Yaqob sent an envoy to Sultan Jaqmaq (1438-53)
with a strongly worded letter. In reply to this message, Jaqmaq sent an envoy to Ethiopia, with
complimentary gifts to the King but rejected the reconstruction of the church.
4.5.2. Relations with Christian Europe

As with the Muslim Arab world, the Christian Kingdom maintained relations with Christian
Europe. During the medieval period, contacts between the two regions were strongly influenced
by the legend of “Prester John.” This was followed by sustained relations in subsequent
decades. For example, it is stated that Ethiopian delegation was in attendance of Gian Galeazzo
Visconti’s coronation in Milan in 1395. In 1418, three Ethiopians attended the Council of
Constance. In another report, message from an Ethiopian monarch, Amde-Tsion was presented
to King Phillip of France in 1332.
The earliest known message to Ethiopia from a European monarch is the letter of King Henry IV
of England dated 1400 A.D. and addressed to “Prester John”, the purported king of the Christian
Kingdom. The identification of the King with “Prester John” was firmly established in the
fourteenth century. They even thought that it was possible to liberate Jerusalem with the help of
30
this King. Hence, during the reign of King Dawit, the leaders of Rome, Constantinople, Syria,
Armenia and Egypt sent letters to the king in which they asked for support. King Dawit received
some Italian craftsmen consisting mainly of Florentines. In 1402, King Dawit sent his first
delegation to Europe led by a Florentine man called Antonio Bartoli.
Alphonso de Paiva V of Aragon received a delegation from Yishaq in the city of Valentia, in
1427. Yishaq’s delegation to Europe was to ask for more artisans and military experts. The
embassy of the Duke of Berry consisting craftsmen, Neapolitan Pietro, a Spaniard and a
Frenchman reached Ethiopia during the reign of Yishaq.
In 1450 a Sicilian Pietro Rombulo, who had been in Ethiopia since the last years of Dawit's reign and who
had previously carried out a successful trade mission to India on behalf of the King, was now sent to
Europe as Zara-Yaqob’s ambassador. An Ethiopian priest, Fikre-Mariam and two other individuals
accompanied him. The mission was to Alphonso of Aragon (also ruled as king of Naples and Sicily).
King Zara-Yaqob sent delegates to Alphonso to get political, military, and technical assistance. Alphonso
wrote a letter to Zara- Yaqob and informed him that he has sent him artisans and masons he requested.
The most authentic pieces of evidence on Ethio-Europe links are the maps of Egyptus Novelo (c. 1454)
and Fra Mauro's Mappomondo (1460) which clearly depicted many places and peoples. Venetian
Gregorio or Hieronion Bicini visited Ethiopia in 1482. Pedros da Covilhao/Peter de Covilham arrived at
the court of Eskindir (1478-1494) in 1493.
The beginning and continued rivalry between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates in
the fifteenth century strengthened the relation between the Christian Kingdom and Christian
Europe. Queen Elleni (the daughter of Hadiya Garad and married to King Zara Yaeqob) played
an important role in the strengthening of these relations. She had foreseen the threat that came
from the Ottoman Turkish who showed a clear interest to support the Muslim Sultanates. She
also had foreseen the possibility of consolidating relations with and getting support from
Portugal that was against the Turks. In 1508, Portugal sent an envoy to act as an ambassador to
Christian Ethiopia. Around 1512, Queen Elleni, the mother and regent of Lebne-Dengel sent an
Armenian called Mathew to Portugal. The Portuguese court doubted his authenticity and was
received coldly. The Portuguese Embassy led by Rodrigo di Lima, Duwarto Galliba and
Francisco Alvarez reached Ethiopia in 1520 and remained for six years. The objective was to
establish a naval port against the expanding Turkish power in Red Sea Area. The mission was
not successful.
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Unit 5: Politics, Economy and Social Processes from the Early 16th to the end of the 18th C.
5.1. Conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal
Religion provided ideological justification for the wars. However, the interest to control trade
routes lay at the heart of the conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates
that continued for over two centuries (actively, 1529 to 1543).
The origins of Imam Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi “the left-handed” is obscure. He was born
at Hubet in between Dire Dawa and Jigjiga and raised by his devout Muslim kin in one of the
oases on the route to Zeila. He was a devout Muslim. He soldiered for Garad Abun of Adal, who
during his few years in power called for Islamic Puritanism. According to local tradition, the
Imam withdrew to the countryside, upon the death of his source of inspiration, Garad Abun, and
started calling for devotion to the teachings of Islam. Here came fundamental change in the cause
of the confrontations. After Imam Ahmad’s rise to power under circumstances discussed above,
the battles were not just fought for control of the long-distance trade route going through Zeila
but mainly because there was environmental pressure among the Afar and Somali pastoralists
pushing to approach Harar and the Christian Kingdom.
Imam is remarkable for his leadership. He ended the internal strife among the sultanates,
corruption and anarchy in the area. He mobilized the pastoral communities of the Afar, the
Somali, the Harla, Harari and others to a common cause. He convinced them not to fight
amongst themselves but to unite and expand to the Christian Kingdom and resolve their pressing
material needs while at the same time guarding Islamic doctrines and practices from the
infiltration of any alien religious doctrine. He was able to gain acceptance as Imam and
consolidated his army to fight the Christian Kingdom. Meanwhile, Lebne-Dengel was enthroned
when he was only eleven, assisted by the elderly Elleni. Already most of the Muslim Sultanates
including Adal were conquered fully and pay tributaries to the Christian Kingdom. However,
shortly, Adal fell to Imam Ahmed’s army. By the time Imam Ahmed was strong enough for
military confrontation in 1520, he refused to pay tribute and this was followed by a campaign
against the Christian Kingdom in 1527.The Imam’s army fought fiercely and controlled the
territories including Bali, Dawaro, Fatagar, Sidama, Hadiya and Kambata and putting the
Christian Kingdom at risk.
In 1528, realizing the rising threat, Lebne-Dengel mobilized a vast force from his domain and
encamped about fifty kilometers east of what is now Addis Ababa. In addition to logistical
problems, the leadership of the army of Christian Kingdom failed to adopt a common strategy to
defeat Adal’s force. On the other hands, Imam Ahmed's highly motivated but small-sized army,
with better logistics. The Imam’s army had also an excellent leadership characterized by better
mobility and flexible tactics with a unified command. As a result, the Christian army was
defeated at the battle of Shimbra Kure in 1529, near present day Mojo. After the victory, the
Imam’s army made a large-scale control of the territories of the Christian Kingdom including
Shewa, Amhara, Lasta, and moved as far north as Mereb Melash. As he penetrated deep into the
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Christian Kingdom, Imam Ahmed established a civil administrative bureaucracy constituted

from his own men and newly recruited personnel from the Christian territories. One of the most
illuminating figures during the war was the wife of the Imam, Bati Del Wanbara. She was the
daughter of a Muslim military commander of Adal known as Mahfuz. She accompanied her
husband throughout his expeditions, even in a state of pregnancy. Indeed, she delivered her two
sons during the campaigns of 1531 and 1533 in Ifat and present day Tigray respectively.
On the part of the Christian Kingdom, the military set back forced the reigning king, Lebne-
Dengel, to retreat finally dying in 1540 as a fugitive . His son and successor, Gelawdewos (r.
1540-1559), continued to face the wars this time with more intensity as Imam Ahmed had
received Turkish musketeers. In the meantime, based on earlier request made by Lebne-Dengel
in 1535, about four hundred Portuguese soldiers, armed with matchlocks arrived in the Christian
court in 1541.The force was led by Christopher da Gama, the youngest son of Vasco da Gama.
However, in August 1542 the Christian army was defeated in Ofla, in today's southern Tigray. In
the battle, about two hundred Portuguese were killed and their leader Christopher da Gama was
beheaded.
An important anecdote that should be mentioned here is the role of Lebne-Dengel's wife
Seblewongel. She is said to have participated in the war against Imam Ahmed in 1542 when the
army of the Christian Kingdom lost almost half of the Portuguese soldiers. After the success,
Imam Ahmed was confident about his army’s ability to repulse any future attack by the force of
the Christian Kingdom that he sent his allies back home and let his army camp. On the part of the
Christians, preparations were made for final confrontation under the leadership of Emperor
Gelawdewos (r.1540-59). The Queen mother, Seble-Wongel, advised the reigning emperor how
to prepare and march for the battle of Woyna-Dega. Due to limited resources, the monarch
employed hit and run strategy, which severely affected Imam’s army. Imam Ahmed’s army
could not use its previous advantage of easy mobility because they did not know where the
attacks came from. On February 25, 1543 while Imam Ahmed was encamped near Lake Tana, he
was attacked and killed after a fierce fighting at the battle of Woyna-Dega.
Soon after the battle, Gelawdewos was confident that the nobility and his army were loyal to
him. By the early 1550s, Gelawdewos had established a strong Christian Kingdom. However, the
control over the Muslim dominated areas was not an easy task, especially the retreated soldiers
of Adal. Adal under the leadership of Nur Ibn al-Waazir Mujahid was ready to wage war
against the Christian state for revenge. In 1559, the forces of Emir Nur confronted Gelawdewos
and killed the king himself. Emperor Minas (r.1559-1563) who succeeded Gelawdewos
defeated the Turks' force and reclaimed territories in the coast including Dabarwa. However, in
the early 1560s, Yishaq revolted and allied with the Turks against him. Similarly, Sartsa-Dengle
(r.1563-1598) had to defend his terittory from the Turks while fighting with the Agaw, Gumuz,
Bete-Israel, Sidama, Enarya and the Oromo. The emperor then marched to the north, defeated
Turkish forces, and restored the territories. The conflict weakened both sides; were thereby it
paved the way for an easy infiltration and success of the Oromo population movement. The
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whole development in fact created modern multi-ethnic Ethiopia, resulting in cultural interaction
among different peoples, linguistic and religious interactions, accompanied by intermarriages.
The conflict between the two sides can put with in the global dimension. Although Vasco da
Gama discovery of a new sea route to India in 1498, the Portuguese needed a way to India, and
control the area. The Ottoman Turks were on the way blocking the middle way. Based on the old
“semi-spiritual quest” legend of the Prester John they needed a militarily alliance with it. From
the first decade of the sixteenth century, messengers were sent to the highland state. Nonetheless,
Ethiopia was not a sea power to give a meaningful maritime support to Portugal against the
Ottoman Turks. Seeing such correspondence and alliance, Imam turned to his Muslim ally,
Turkey for assistance, and the Turks gave moral and military support to Imam Ahmed in 1540;
who provided two hundred Muslim musketeers and ten cannons.
5.2. Foreign Intervention and Religious Controversies

The war with the sultanate of Adal had caused the destruction of much property and the clergy.
The Christian Kingdom regarded an alliance with Roman Catholicism for material and military
support. In 1557, several Jesuit missionaries along with their bishop, Andreas de Oviedo, came
to Ethiopia to expand Catholicism. The Jesuits promoted Catholic doctrine of two different and
therefore separate, natures of Christ-divine and human, which was contrary to Monophysite
theology of Ethiopian Orthodox Church; which teach Christ has a perfect human nature
inseparable from the divine, through union or Tewahedo. Leading catholic missionaries in
Ethiopia include Joao Bermudez, Andreas de Oviedo, Pedro Paez and Alfonso Mendez.
The Jesuits began their evangelical effort with Emperor Gelawdewos (r.1540-59), hoping that
the rest of the society would follow suit. Gelawdewos listened and engaged in doctrinal debates
with the missionaries, but he was not prepared to give in. Instead, he defended the teachings of
Orthodox Christianity in a document entitled the Confession of Faith. Minas and Sertse-Dengel,
who succeeded Gelawdewos one after the other, were too busy fighting in the south. The Jesuits
got relative success with Emperor Za-Dengel (r. 1603-4), who was said to have been
sympathetic to Catholicism. Yet Za-Dengel’s reign was too short for the Jesuits to effect the
desired result. Za-Dengel was overthrown by Yaqob (r. 1598-1603; 1604-7), who met a similar
fate in the hands of Jesuits, followed by Susenyos (r. 1607-32).
Susenyos sought an alliance with the Catholics in his fight with the different subjects in the
empire, especially with the diplomatic advisory_ Pedro Paez. In 1612, Susenyos converted to
Catholicism and announced it to be state religion later in 1622. In the meantime, in 1617-8
several anti-Catholic voices mounted following the changes in liturgy and religious practices.
Even worse, with the monarch’s consent, another Spanish Jesuit, Afonso Mendez ordered
reconsecration of Orthodox priests and deacons and rebaptism of the mass. Besides, he called for
the suspension of Old Testament customs such as male circumcision and the observance of the
Sabbath. Additional pronouncements include prohibition of preaching in Ge’ez, fasting on
Wednesdays and Fridays, reverence for Ethiopian saints and the Ark of Covenant (Tabot).
Meanwhile, he ordered eating pork, Latin Mass and Gregorian calendar to be adopted. The
reforms led to revolts led by the ecclesiastics and the nobility. Even loyal followers of the
34
emperor including his own son Fasiledas (r. 1632-67) were opposed to the changes initiated by
the Jesuits.
After 1625, controversies, rebellions, repressions mounted and the state came to the verge of
falling apart. In a battle in June 1632, large number of peasants lost their lives in one day.
Finally, the emperor abdicated the throne in favor of Fasiledas, who reversed the Catholic
transformation. Fasiledas restored the position of Orthodox Church as the state religion, expelled
the Jesuits and punished local converts including Susenyos’ brother and the most fervent
supporter of Catholicism, Se'ela Kristos. Fearing another religious conflict, Emperor Fasiledas
introduced a “closed-door” policy, which isolated the country from all Europeans for about a
century and a half. Conversely, he initiated and adopted a policy of close diplomatic relations
with the Islamic world and formed an alliance with the neighboring Muslim states to ensure that
no European crossed into the Christian Kingdom. As a result, in 1647, he concluded an
agreement with the Ottoman Pasha at Suakin and Massawa to the effect that the latter should
block any European from entering in to his territory. By doing so, Fasiledas was able to restore
peace and order. Ethiopia’s diplomatic break from Europe remained effective until the beginning
of the nineteenth century with the exception of secret visits by a French Doctor Charles Jacques
Poncet and the Scottish traveler James Bruce in 1700 and 1769, respectively.
Yet, the Jesuit intervention triggered doctrinal divisions and controversy within the Ethiopian
Orthodox Church that was divided into disputant sects and reached its peak during the Zemene
Mesafint. Tewahedo teaches Hulet Lidet (two births) of Christ: first in eternity as a Divine Being
the eternal birth and second, born again from St. Mary into the world as a perfect man and
perfect divinity united in one nature, thus Tewahedo (United). It was dominant in Tigray and
Lasta. Qibat (Unction) was also developed from Hulet Lidet doctrine and accepted the eternal
birth as the first birth of Christ, but claimed that at the moment of his incarnation, when he was
born into the world, Holy Ghost anointed him. This sect was dominant in Gojjam. Sost
Lidet/Three Births (Ya Tsega Lij/Son through Grace) taught that Christ was first born in
eternity as divine being, was born again in the womb of St. Mary and anointed by Holy Ghost.
This sect was dominant in Gonder and Shawa.
5.3. Population Movements

People moved from place to place due to pull and push factors, which can be summed up as
natural and social. Specifically, people move out from their habitats in search of resources and
better living environment: wars, drought and demographic factors. Such movements had resulted
in the intermingling and intermarriage of people (and their culture) and evolution of new
identities. The 16th c. war and pressure on the environment were partly responsible for the
population movement of the Argoba, Afar and Somali.
5.3.2. Gadaa System and Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)

A. The Gadaa System
The Gadaa system was an institution through which the Oromo socially organized themselves,
administered their affairs, defended their territories, maintained law and order, and managed
their economies. Studies do not clearly indicate when and how the Gadaa system emerged.
35
However, it is clear that for long the society organized their politics, economy, social, cultural,
and religious affairs through the Gadaa institution. Time computation and recording history
was based on the eight-year segment of time. In the system, eight years represented one Gadaa
period, 5-gadaa periods or 40 years represented one generation and nine generations represented
an era. Accordingly, the earliest ones like Gadaa Bidiri Dhoqqe were not well known. Prior to
the beginning of Gadaa Borana-Barentu (around 1450 AD), the Oromo passed through known
eras of Taya, Tasaa, Munyo, Suftu, Maddile, Abroji, Dhittacha and Warra-Daye (warden), each
of which survived for an era. Due to some internal and external factors some Gadaas like the
Borana-Barentu Gadaa were instituted for nearly two generations. It was revived in 1450 at
Madda Walabu that became the central Chaffe (assembly) and seat of the senior Qallu to 1900.
The Gadaa system constituted elements of democracy such as periodic succession and power
sharing to prevent a one-man rule. Other principles of the system included representation of all
lineages, clans and confederacies. It also served as a mechanism of socialization, education,
maintenance of peace and order, social cohesion etc. In addition, Gadaa constituted rules of
arara (conflict resolution), guma (compensation), and rakoo (marriage). The Gadaa system
organized the Oromo society into age-grades and generation sets delineating members' social,
political, and economic responsibilities. In the system, ten age- grades and five classes operated
in parallel. The system provided a socio-political framework that institutionalized relationship
between seniors and juniors and egalitarian relations among members of a grade. The system
helped the members of age-sets to develop a consistent and stable sense of self and others. Sons
joined the first grade as members of Gadaa class (generation class or set) forty years after their
fathers and were initiated into the next higher grade every eight years. The following table shows
a common version of age-grades and roles associated to them. 85
Gadaa-grade Age Roles

Dabale birth-8 years socialization
Game 9-16
Folle 17-24 military training, agriculture etc
Qondala 25-32 military service
Raba-Dori 33-40 candidates for political power
Luba 41-48 leaders of Gadaa government
Yuba 49 to 80 senior advisors, educators and ritual
leaders
The gadaa/luba assumed power for eight years. The head of the government was known as
Abba-Gadaa literally “father of the period” who was assisted by several elected representatives
from among the generation set. These included Abba Bokku (father of scepter), Abba Chaffe
(head of the assembly), Abba-Dula (war leader), Abba Sera (father of law), Abba Alanga (judge),
Abba Sa'a (father of treasury) and other councilors.
In the Gadaa system, the senior Qallu (Abba Muda) played indispensable roles in power transfer
and legitimizing the ruling gadaa class. Women maintained their rights by the Sinqe institution,
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which helped them to form sisterhood and solidarity. Women from childhood to old age i.e.
guduru (pre-pubescent), qarre (adolescent, ready for marriage), kalale (wives of Luba and Yuba)
and cifire (wives of Gadamojji/above 80 years) were believed to have sacred power. They
involved in occasions like power transfer, conflict resolution, thanks-giving and others. The
kalale were also privileged to support and advise the ruling class. The Gadaa system functioned
by the cyclical power transfer in every eight years. With some minor differences in naming in
different parts of Oromo, the five Gadaa classes (generation sets) are listed below: 86
Fathers Sons
Melba Harmufa
Mudena Robale
Kilole Birmajii
Bifole Mul’ata
Michill Dulo
e
B. The Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)

A combination of natural and manmade factors caused the Oromo population movement of
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Natural factors include demographic pressure and
subsequent need for land to accommodate the growing human and livestock population.
Furthermore, the conflict between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates from the
thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries might have pressurized mainly pastoral Oromo groups to
leave the lands they inhabited for other areas. In the early decade of the16th c., when the
population movement began, the Oromo were already organized under Borana and Barentu
confederacies. The Oromo forces took northern direction and passed through a corridor between
Mount Walabu and Lake Abbaya. When they reached half way between Lakes Abbaya and
Hawassa, they took westward and penetrated across the Bilatte River to the southwest. Then they
headed northwards to the lakes region of the Rift Valley.
From 1522 to 1618, the Oromo fought twelve Butta wars. Accordingly, the first Gadaa Melba
(1522-1530) defeated Christian regiment Batra Amora led by Fasil and occupied Bali while
Mudena (1530-8) reached the edge of Awash River. The Kilole (1538-46) controlled Dawaro
after defeating Christian regiment Adal Mabraq while Bifole (1546-54) advanced to Waj and
Erer. The Michille (1554-62) scored victory over Hamalmal's force at Dago, and Jan Amora
forces as well as Adal led by Emir Nur Mujahiddin at Mount Hazalo. The Harmufa (1562-70)
fought Minas (r.1559-63) at Qacina and Wayyata; occupied Angot, Ganzyi, Sayint etc. In 1574,
Sartsa Dingil’s (r.1563-97) cavalry led by Azzaj Halibo defeated Robale gadaa (1570-78) at
Woyna Daga, but Robale recovered by defeating Zara’a Yohannis’ force. The Birmaji (1578-86)
controlled Ar'ine in Waj, crossed Jama to Wolaqa and overwhelmed the Daragoti regiment. The
Mul’ata (1586-94) seized Damot, Bizamo, Gafat, Dambiya and Tigray. In the early seventeenth
century, the Dulo (1594-1602), Melba (1603-10), and Mudena (1610-18) expanded to West and
Northern parts of the Horn of Africa while others like the Warday moved to Kenya and Bur
Haqaba and Majertin in Somalia.
37
In the course of their movement into various regions, different Oromo branches established
Gadaa centers. Accordingly, Oda Nabee of Tulama, Oda Roba of Sikko-Mando (Arsi), Oda
Bultum of Itu-Humabenna, Oda Bisil of Mecha and Oda Bulluq of Jawwi Mecha became major
Gadaa centers. Other places, which became Gadaa centers, were Gayo of Sabbo-Gona, Me'e
Bokko of Guji, Oda Dogi of Ilu, Oda Hulle of Jimma, Oda Garado of Waloo, etc. Gadaa leaders
such as Dawe Gobbo of Borana, Anna Sorra of Guji, Makko-Bili of Mecha, Babbo Koyye of
Jimma and others established Gadaa centers and laid down cardinal laws in their respective
areas. The different clan groups kept their relations through the office of Abba Muda (the father
of anointment) seated at Madda Walabu and formed alliances during times of difficulty. Besides,
they obeyed similar ada (culture) and sera (law) through sending their delegates to Madda-
Walabu, the central chaffe until the pan-Oromo assembly was forbidden in 1900 due to the
political influence of the Ethiopian state.
In due course, Gadaa devised effective resource allocation formula including land. Land holding
system to regulate resource and their interaction among different clans is known as the qabiyye
system. The system established rights of precedence (seniority) in possession of land.
Accordingly, place names were given the names of pioneers as markers of qabiyye rights.
5.4. Interaction and Integration across Ethnic and Religious Diversities

It is apparent that territorial and religious expansion by the Christian kingdom diffused
Christian tradition from north to the south. Similarly, the wars of Imam Ahmed and the
population movements of the Argoba, the Afar and the Somali caused the expansion of Islam
into the central parts of Ethiopia. One consequence of the Oromo population movement was
that it put an end to the wars between the Christian and Muslim states as well as the southward
expansion of the Christian state. At larger scale, the Oromo contact with diverse peoples in the
sixteenth century brought far-reaching integrations among peoples across ethnic and religious
background.
The Oromo integrated non-Oromo through two adoption mechanisms: Guddifacha and
Moggasa. Guddifacha refers to the adoption of a child by a foster parent. In this system, the child
enjoyed equal rights and privileges with a biological child. Likewise, Moggasa was a system of
adopting non-Oromos commonly known as Oromsu. Moggasa was the practice of incorporation
of individuals or groups to a clan through oath of allegiance with all the rights and obligations
that such membership entailed. Moggasa was undertaken by the Abba Gadaa on behalf of the
clan. The adopted groups gained both protection and material benefits. The process significantly
contributed to the social cohesions, national integration, and the revival of long-distance trade.
Likewise, the Oromo adopted and adapted cultures and traditions of the people with whom
they came into contact. The case in point is the adoption of monarchical systems and the
integration of the Oromo to the Christian and Muslim cultures. It is important to mention the rise
of nobles in the northern Oromo in politics particularly during the Gondar period, Zemene-
Mesafint and the making of modern Ethiopia.
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5.5. Peoples and States in Eastern, Central, Southern and Western Regions
The selection of the states (here) is based on availability of sources and not seen earlier.
5.5.1. Peoples and States in the East
Somali
The Somali practiced pastoral economy. Ibn Said (1214-86), an Arab geographer, noted that
Merca town located in the southern Somali coast near Shabele River was a capital that brought
large number of Somalis together during the thirteenth century. The songs celebrating King
Yeshaq's (r. 1413-30) military success depicts that the Somali lived close to the Christian
Kingdom. Somali contingents also played important role in the victories of the Sultanate of Adal
against the Christian kingdom. Historically, a council known as shir governed the society. The
decision making process was highly democratic in which all-adult male were allowed equal
access and participation. These councils at sub-clan, clan and inter-clan level provided a
governing structure that acted as an enforcement of law and justice. The council governed wide-
ranging affairs including resource allocation, marriage, trade and crime. As a component of shir,
the guurti (a council of elders) was the highest political council to resolve conflict and crisis.
Afar
The Afar predominantly lived in northeastern Ethiopia and in northern Djibouti, although some
have also inhabited southern part of Eritrea. The Afar had an indigenous governance system
known as Makabanto, which had some elements of democracy. The Afar people were first
mentioned by Ibn Said. During the thirteenth century, they occupied the lowland territory near
Bab el-Mandeb. The land inhabited by the Afars was home for many historical cities such as
Maduna and Abasa. Following the collapse of the power of Sultanate of Adal in the sixteenth
century, the Afar established their sultanates like Awsa, Girrifo, Tadjourah, Rahaito and Gobad.
Awsa Sultanate succeeded the earlier Imamate of Awsa in the middle Awash. The latter polity
had come into existence in 1577, when Mohammed Jasa moved his capital from Harar to Awsa.
At some point after 1672, Awsa declined and temporarily ended in conjunction with Imam Umar
Din bin Adam's recorded ascension to the throne. The Sultanate was subsequently re-established
by Kedafo around 1734, and was thereafter ruled by his Mudaito Dynasty. Primary symbol of the
Sultan was silver baton. Awsa’s economy mainly depended on Bati-Ginda’e trade route. Later it
became center of Islamic learning led by preachers like Tola Hanfire.
Argoba
There are two versions on the origin of the people of Argoba. The first version holds that they
descended from the followers of the Prophet Mohammed who came to the Horn of Africa and
settled at Ifat. The second version claims that the Argoba are one of the ancient peoples in the
region (that accepted Islam very early from religious leaders who came from Arabia).
The Emirate of Harar

Harar is one of the earliest Muslim centers in the region of Ethiopia and the Horn. In the
sixteenth century, Harar became the capital of Walasma of Adal replacing Dakar until 1577
when it was shifted to Awsa due to the pressure from the Oromo. Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim used
Harar as a center from where he launched his campaigns into the Christian kingdom in 1527.
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Later during the reign of Emir Nur Mujahid, Harar became a walled city where the sultanate of
the Harari developed.
In the mid seventeenth century, Emir Ali ibn Da’ud (r. 1647-62) in cooperation with the Oromo
established a dynasty which was to rule for nearly two centuries and a half. It was strengthened
by Amirs like Abdul Shakur (1783-94). The Amir’s council, Majilis engaged in supervising
Mosque land, Waqf and offering other assistance to the Amir. The emirate grew in importance to
be a steady center of Islamic culture and power. Its economic power grew as it controlled trade
routes from the Gulf of Aden ports of Zeila and Berbera. Its authority was established over the
surrounding Oromo and Somali through trade, inter-marriage, and expansion of Islamic
teachings. Egyptians were attracted by such a prominence that they sent an expeditionary force
in 1875 and controlled the emirate for nearly a decade. Although it was later restored, and ruled
by Amir Abdulahi, as the last emir of the Sultanate for two years, Emperor Menilek’s expansion
to the region shortly followed in 1887.
5.5.2. Peoples and States in Central and South Central Parts

The Kingdom of Shewa
The Kingdom of Shewa was formed by a Menz ruler Negasi Kristos (r.1696-1703) and
eventually controlled districts like Asandabo, Debdabo, Mafud and Yifat. The second king was
Merid Azmatch Sebestie/Sebastyanos (r.1703-18). Abuye/ Abiyye (1718-45) made Haramba, his
capital and tried to subjugate the surrounding Oromo before he was killed by the Karrayu
Oromo. In addition to his unsuccessful attempts to control the Afar and Abitchu Oromo, Amaha
Iyesus/ Amayyes (r.1745-75) declared authority over Bulga, Efrata, Menz and Tegulet with his
capital at Doqaqit which later shifted to Ankober. Asfa-Wosen (r.1775-1808) conquered
Antsokia, Asbo, Gedem, Gishe, Merhabete, Morat and Shewa Meda. The dynasty became very
strong under Negus Sahle-Sellasie (r.1813-47), the grandfather of Emperor Menilek II. During
his reign, many travelers visited Shewa and he even signed “treaty of friendship and commerce”
with the British in 1841.Shewa’s economy was mainly based on agriculture supplemented by
trade and craft. Near the capital, Ankobar, there was an important trade center in Aleyu Amba
administered by the Shewan court.
Gurage
The Gurage are divided into the Western and Northern Gurage. The first are also known as Sebat
Bet Gurage and include: Chaha, Muher, Ezha, Gumer (Inamor, Enner, Endegegna and Gyeto).
The latter are variously known as Kistane, Aymallal or Soddo Gurage. Additional groups
included Dobbi, Gadabano and Masqan. The staple crop in Gurage land is enset. The Gurage had
traditional system of governance developed over the centuries. It is known as the Yajoka Qicha
among the Sebat Bet and the Gordanna Sera among the Kistane. There was, however, no
centralized leadership. Power was vested in clan or lineage groups. The descent groups displayed
corporate rights, obligations, and influence.
Kambata
By about 1550-70, four communities of separate origin coalesced to form the contemporary state
of Kambata which means, “this is the place” (where we live-as the Kambata believe in). At the
40
end of the sixteenth century, the groups were recognized as and conscious of the name Kambata
related to one of the seven dominant clans (Kambata Lamala) in the region. The people were
ensete farmers. The Kambata had a traditional administrative institution called the Hambericho
Council. The council had seven members each representing the seven clans in the region. With a
king at the top, the council ruled Kambata until the late nineteenth century.
Hadiya
The origin of the state of Hadiya goes back to the thirteenth century. It was mentioned in the
Kebre-Negest (Glory of the Kings) and it referred to the area west of the Islamic states in the
federation of Zeila. The people were heterogeneous both linguistically and culturally. Semitic-
speaking agricultural people dominated north of the state while the southern part was largely
inhabited by Cushitic-speaking pastoral communities. There was a considerable Muslim
population. By about 1332, the ruler of the Christian kingdom, Amde-Tsion, subjugated Hadiya
after defeating its ruler, Amano who supported by a Muslim “prophet” Bel’am aligned with the
then leader of Ifat, Sabraddin to confront the Christian force.
In 1445, a Hadiya king called Mahiqo rebelled against Emperor Zara-Yaqob (r.1434-68) and was
consequently replaced by his uncle Bamo. To stabilize the situation, Zara-Yaqob made a political
marriage. Accordingly, Princess Elleni, from Hadiya, who became an important historical figure,
married Emperor Zara-Yaqob. Another Hadiya leader, Garad Aze refused to pay tribute to
Emperor Sartsa-Dengel (r.1563-98), but was suppressed in 1568/9. The relations between Hadiya
and the Christian Kingdom was interrupted following the wars between the latter and Adal and
the Oromo population movement until Hadiya's incorporation into the Imperial state in the late
nineteenth century. After these two major historical events especially the latter, Hadiya’s
population became more diverse. However, descendants of the old Hadiya can be traced from
four different linguistic clusters: the Oromo, the Sidama, the Kabena and Alaba, and the Hadiya
proper with its sub-groups-the Mareko, Lemu, Soro, Shashogo and Badowacho. As with the
Kambata and Sidama, the Hadiya language belongs to the Highland East Cushitic family and
their languages are intelligible to members of these ethnic groups.
5.5.3. Peoples and States in the South

Sidama
Historically, the Sidama have been living in the southern parts of Ethiopia occupying lowlands
of about 1500 m a.s.l in the Great East Africa Rift Valley that cut through Lakes Hawasa and
Abaya up to 3000 m a.s.l in the eastern Sidama highlands of Arbegona, Bansa and Arroressa
districts. Agriculture, although practiced traditionally, remained the basis of Sidama’s economy.
Enset and coffee are Sidama’s important food and cash crops respectively.
The Sidama had an indigenous system of governance led by the Mote (king). The Mote exercised
political and administrative authority in consultation with the council of elders called Songo.
Songo members raised any agenda for discussion within the council and submitted their
decisions to the Mote for approval. Although there was no written constitution, rules were known
by heart through generations and practiced accordingly.
41
The cultural and ritual leader in Sidama society was the Woma. He was selected for his ability as
a peacemaker, bodily perfection, oratorical ability, wisdom and caution. The Woma could not
participate in war or cattle raiding as he was considered a man of peace. The Woma handled
cultural matters such as offering sacrifices to the spirits. He also performed other rituals such as
circumcision and marriage.
Sidama society was divided into generation-sets called Luwa. The system had five grades each
lasting for eight years. These are Darara, Fullassa, Hirbora, Wawassa and Mogissa. Candidates
for Luwa received a five-month military training and war songs like gerarsha under the
leadership of the gaden with his deputy called Ja’lawa. The gaden settled disputes within his
Luwa, besides handling the defense of Sidama society together with the Mote.
Another important institution of Sidama society is Seera. Seera was the social constitution of the
Sidama people governing social life based on the Sidama moral code, halale (the ultimate truth)
to judge the right and wrong. Although it was not written and defined with strict enforcement
mechanisms, people abide by the rules of halale to avoid curse by the society.
Gedeo
Contradictory traditions exist regarding the origin of the Gedeo people. The dominant tradition
relates the ancestors of the Gedeo to Daraso, who was the older brother of Gujo (father of Guji
Oromo). Accordingly, the seven major Gedeo clans descended from the seven sons of Daraso.
The clans were grouped in two houses, the first being the shole batte (senior house) where the
first four clans belonged including more than 25 sub-clans and the second called sase batte
(junior house) where the last three belonged having 10 sub-clans. Each clan was exogamous and
was assigned for particular duty such as ritual, traditional medicine or leadership.
The Gedeo had a culture called baalle, a traditional governance system that worked with age
classes and ranking. The baalle had seven grades with a 10-year period each creating a 70-year
cycle. Sasserogo was a federation of three territories; Sobbho, Ributa and Rikuta sharing one
Abba Gadaa who leaves office every eight years to be replaced by a new holder with the next age
set at baalle ceremony. It was at this ceremony that all positions ranging from the top, Abba
Gada down to Hayitcha were assumed. Like the neighboring Sidama, with whom they shared a
very close language, their economy was based on the cultivation of enset.
Konso
The name Konso is invariably used to refer one of the ancient peoples in Ethiopia and the Horn
who spoke affa Konso (Konso language) and their land. The literal meaning of the term is a
“heavily forested hill/ area.” A century ago the highlands of Konso, which was covered by dense
forest, had been the traditional home of Konso people while the low-lying environment along
Sagan and Woyito river valley served as hunting grounds. Konso attracted the attention of local
and international researchers interested in human evolution, as it is one of the earliest human
settlement sites in the world.
42
Agriculture was and remains to be the major economic activity of the Konso. Farmers practiced a
fairly balanced and integrated system of specialized agricultural technology. The location of
mainland Konso within mosquito infested hot and dry lowlands at the edge of the Great East
African Rift Valley led farmers to adopt intensive agriculture. Farmers combined crop
production with cattle breeding. At the same time, they adopted soil conservation techniques
notably the construction of terraces, which proved helpful to convert rugged and hilly areas into
permanent cultivation. Farmers were also adept at selecting plant varieties that withstood harsh
climatic conditions. Such complex agricultural practices enabled farmers to produce sufficient
food on small plot of land for their sustenance. Besides agriculture, Konso’s economy depended
on bee keeping and craftworks. All of these activities attest the ingenuity of local adaptation
strategies.
Until the late nineteenth century, the Konso people lived in walled villages (paletas) which were
further divided into wards called Kanta. There was no central authority who acted as sovereign
power over the three regions. Each village was ruled by a council of elders called hayyota who
were selected through direct participation of male members of the village. Membership to the
council was not hereditary but rotated every eighteen years.
At the core of the socio-political organization of the Konso appear to be the clan or lineage group
and generation set, Tselta.The Konso were divided into nine exogamous clans namely
Toqmaleta, Elayta, Saudata, Pasanta, Kertita, Ishalayta, Mahaleta, Tikisayta and Argamyta. The
Tselta had fixed cycle of years starting from birth, although they varied across villages- eighteen
in Karat, nine in Takati and five in Turo. The major function of the generation set was informing
the responsibilities expected of each age group.
5.5.4. Peoples and States in Southwestern Part

Wolayta
The name Wolayta denotes a specific ethnic group in southwestern Ethiopia and their powerful
kingdom, which first emerged as a state in the thirteenth century. According to local traditions,
before the emergence of Wolayta as a political unit, the area was inhabited by different
communities such as the Badia, Badiagadala and Aruja. The state flourished in the late
eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries because of successful wars that the Wolayta fought
against their neighbors and the material, human and territorial gains thereof. At the apex of the
social and political hierarchy was the Kawo (king), assisted by a council of advisors. From the
thirteenth to the late nineteenth centuries, two successive dynasties ruled Wolayta: the Wolayta-
Malla and the Tigre. Founded in the thirteenth century by Motalami, the Wolayta-Malla seems to
have ruled until the end of the fifteenth century. It was then superseded by the Tigre dynasty, so
called because it was supposedly founded by Tigreans from northern Ethiopia.
The land of Wolayta is known for its fertility and moderate climate, with green vegetation cover
for the most part of the year. All land was nominally owned by the king who granted it to his
dependents. In practice, land relationships were ordered according to three basic principles of
social organization i.e. kinship, polity and social status. Accordingly, rights over land were
vested in the lineage group, the crown (royal estate) and the nobility. There were also communal
43
lands allocated for grazing and social gatherings to which all members of the society except
artisans had equal access. The king rewarded people with land on grounds of gallant deeds in
battle and other important contributions to the state. By grants of land or by threats of
dispossession the reigning monarch ensured loyalty to the state. Except those who worked on the
royal estate, landholders paid tribute to the king. The dominant food crop was enset (Enset
Ventricosum).
Kafa
According to traditions, this powerful kingdom emerged in the fourteenth century. Around mid
seventeenth century, the state had come to prominence. The ruling Minjo dynasty and the
medieval kingdom of Ennarya had close contact. The Oromo expansion might have forced the
ruling house of Ennarya to flee south of the Gojeb which as a result brought Christianity and the
royal title tato to Kafa.
As with a number of Cushitic and some Semitic peoples of the south, Kafa’s economy was based
on the cultivation of enset on peasant farms supported by trade. Besides working on their land,
peasants rendered free labor service and tilled royal estates with the support of slaves who were
acquired through raiding or trading, or as payment for debt. As far as trade is concerned, a
prosperous commerce took place with Oromo states of the Gibe region. Major trade items, such
as musk, coffee, slaves, Ivory, gold, honey-wax, and civet were exported via markets like
Tonkolla, Tiffa, Qeya etc.
From the seventeenth to the eighteenth centuries, the kingdom expanded to Bonesho, Mashengo,
Maji, Nao, She and Chara. At the apex of the administration of the kingdom was the Tato with
his major political center at Bonga. Another seat of power was Andarcha, seven miles to
southeast. The Tato was assisted by a council of seven advisors called Mikrecho. The Mikrecho
served to moderate the power of the king but they played important roles in succession as well.
The Kafa had a tradition of digging deep trenches called Kuripo as defensive barrier. The Gojeb
also served as natural protection against external invasion and it might have contributed to their
relative independence until 1897.
Yem
The Yem state was located along the eastern banks of the Gibe or to the northeast of the Kafa
kingdom. Yem’s economy combined agriculture, trade and crafts. Initially, an indigenous
dynasty called Dida or Halmam-Gamma ruled Yem from its palace in Dudarkema/Zimarma near
Oya, in the vicinity of Bor Ama Mountain. Besides being at the top of the political ladder, the
Amno (king) of Yem acted as a chief priest with attributes of divinity. A state council of 12
members named Astessor with its chairperson Waso assisted the Amno in administering the state.
Erasho were the provincial governors and they were responsible for digging ditches called bero
and erecting nearly fifty-meter wooden or iron pillars at the center of the kingdom around Brisi
Bita so that the war father, the Nomiaw, could patrol the surroundings. Special messengers, Wosi
carried orders from Amno down to district chiefs, Gagna and vice versa. In the fourteenth
century, the last King Oyokam/Amo Dasha was overthrown by people from the north who
44
founded a new dynasty called Mowa (Howa) with its center at Angari. In the nineteenth century,
the neighboring state of Jimma Abba Jifar tried to control the Yem which itself was absorbed
into the imperial state of Ethiopia under Emperor Menilek II towards the end of the century.
Gamo
Historically, the Gamo inhabited areas from Lakes Chamo and Abaya to the Gughe Mountain
and beyond. Gamo’s physical landscape can be divided into two: the geze (highland) and the
bazo (lowland). The highlands were densely populated while people who escaped coercion by
the state at the political center largely settled the lowlands which also served as hunting fields. A
set of interrelated indigenous laws called the Woga defined land-use in the Gamo highlands. The
laws had their origin in a belief that everything was connected and bound in a delicate balance.
Together they formed a natural resource management system that governed everything from
interpersonal relationships to the conservation and preservation of pasture, forest, soil, and water.
The cultivation of enset had been central to the subsistence of Gamo highlands while maize and
sweet potato were staple food crops in the lowlands. Other crops grown in the highlands included
barely, wheat, teff, peas, beans and cabbage. Besides farming, most farmers kept cattle for food,
farming and manure, which they needed for successful agriculture. Craft making, pot making,
tanning and metalworking were other modes of the subsistence system. These people had
developed their own indigenous knowledge and technologies in manufacturing different types of
tools and weapons, traditional musical and funeral instruments, weaving colorful textiles etc.
The first mention of the Gamo in written records dates back to the fifteenth century in the praise
songs of king Yishak (r.1413-30). The song mentioned the Gamo as one of the tributary states to
the monarch. The Gamo maintained relative autonomy from control by the Christian Kingdom
after war with the Muslim sultanates weakened the latter. Between the sixteenth and the
nineteenth centuries, the Gamo lived in scattered settlements and organized in different
communities called dere. The dere were politically autonomous villages (units) but shared three
essential features. These were: 1) each dere had kawo (hereditary ruler) who also offered
sacrifices and symbolized the unity of the people. 2) every dere had its own initiates called
halaqa and; (3) every dere had its own assembly place called dubusha, where communal matters
were discussed and disputes solved.
Access to politico-ritual status among the Gamo people was made possible through initiation or
election and baira, a system of seniority. The two systems functioned both in opposition to each
other as well as complementarily. Through initiation or election the dulata (assembly) elected
married men to positions that were known by different names from one dere to another. In some
dere it was called halaqa, in others it was known by the name huduga or maga. Election to this
office was open to all married men and accorded representatives with provisional political
authority. The dulata had an institutional authority to give decisions on different social, political
and many other important matters. The assembly had also the power to impose sanctions as
penalty on individuals or groups who committed serious crimes or violated the community’s
social regulations and cultural values.
45
The second system, the baira, was ascribed and largely based on genealogical seniority
according to primogeniture. The Gamo people were distributed in agnatic clans each having a
system of individual genealogical hierarchy. The baira (senior) of the clan had a privilege over
lineage members. The baira made animal sacrifice on behalf of their juniors at all levels of the
community. The senior sacrificer of the dere is the kawo. The concept of kawo refers to the first
rank status, with variable attributes and he was legitimatized by birth and primogeniture. The
kawo represented the unity of dere and played an important role in relations with the outside
world.
Dawuro
Dawuro’s topography mostly is mountainous and plateau at the central, and lowland and plain at
Gojeb and Omo river basins. The land is divided into three climatic zones. These are geziya
(highland), dashuwa (mid-altitude) and gad’a (lowland). Such climatic conditions enriched
Dawuro with a variety of tree species and natural vegetation/forest. The livelihood of Dawuro
people is based on mixed agricultural activities. The language of Dawuro people is
Dawurotsuwa, a sub-group of the Omotic family.
Historically, Dawuro land had been inhabited by three major clans namely Malla, Dogolla, and
Amara which altogether were regarded as Gok’as or K’omos. The area was also home for people
that came from neighboring Omotic states such as Wolayta, Kucha, Gamo, Gofa, and Kafa and
from places like Gondar, Gojjam, Tigray and Shewa. A political alliance through royal marriages
was one important factor that facilitated the movement of people from neighboring territories
into Dawuro.
By about 1700, the Kawuka dynasty had created a big state from a great number of petty
chieftainships on the territory between the Gojeb and Omo rivers in the north, east and south and
the Kafa high mountains in the west. Among the rulers of the Kawuka dynasty of Dawuro, Kati
Irashu and Kati Halala were famous. Kati Halala was the grandson of the king of Kafa. During
his reign, Dawuro incorporated Konta. He is known for his stone fortifications, which he
oversaw to defend his territories from outsiders.
Ari
The Omo River basin had been home to different groups of people since early times. These
included the Ari, Dasenech, Tsemayi, Erbore, Hamer, Surma, Meniet, Nyangatom, Bodi, Male,
etc. Major economic activities in the region were sedentary agriculture, pastoralism and
handcrafts.
The language of the Ari people is called Araf, which is one branch of the Omotic language
family. The people were sedentary agriculturalist. The society was organized into ten
independent clan based chiefdoms. Hereditary clan chief known as Babi headed each of these
chiefdoms. The clan chief was entitled with both political and ritual authorities over the people
of his respective domain. The clan chief was assisted by officially appointed prominent figures in
the administration of the political unit. The assistants included Godimis (religious leaders), Zis
(village heads) and Tsoikis (intelligence agents of Babi).
46
5.5.5. Peoples and States in the West

Berta and Gumuz
The Berta people inhabit the present Beni-Shangul Regional State. The earliest record of Berta
settlement in this region dates from the sixteenth century. The Berta people speak the Berta
language as their mother tongue. It is a tonal language classified as a branch of the Nilo-Saharan
linguistic group. In addition to the Berta, the Beni-Shangul is home for the Gumuz. They are
mentioned by the Scottish explorer James Bruce. He notes that they hunted with bows and
arrows, a custom that survives today. The Gumuz speak the Gumuz language, which belongs to
the Nilo-Saharan family. It is subdivided in several dialects. Islamic influence had been strong on
the Berta and other Nilotes because of their trade and social contacts with the northern Sudan.
Anywa
Historically, the Anywa predominantly inhabited areas along Pibor, Sobat, Gila, Akobo, Agwei,
Oboth, Baro, and Alwero Rivers on the western borderlands of the present-day Gambella region.
The people speak Dha-anywaa, a sub-branch of the Nilo- Saharan language family. The Anywa
had an indigenous administrative system whereby each village lived under a chief called Kuaari
who along with the nobles, Nyiye, managed the distribution of farm and grazing fields, settled
disputes etc with the community. Although local traditions mention a certain person by the name
Oshoda as the founding father of the Anywa, the administration of the territory was not
centralized. Economically, they are engaged in small-scale cultivation, fishing and hunting.
While most Anywa practiced Christianity, they also believed in traditional religion.
Nuer
Historically, the Nuer lived in areas that extended across the savannas and marshes of the Bahr
el-Ghazal and the Upper Nile regions of the Sudan. Since the nineteenth century, they had been
largely settled in the plains of Gambella along the Sobat and Baro Rivers and parts of the Sudan.
The mainstay of Nuer’s economy was cattle breeding supplemented by crop production. The
Nuer had developed a rather complex spiritual culture around their cattle, which were used as
bride wealth as well. The Nuer had an age-set system combining social and political functions.
Nuer boys had to pass through a rigorous test and a series of rites connected with it before they
were initiated into adulthood.
Majang
The Majang formed the southern end of the Nilo-Saharan settlement that covered the escarpment
of the Oromo inhabited highlands to the Baro plains. Linguistic evidence relates the origin of the
Majang to the Boma plateau in South Sudan. Gradually, they moved northwards and settled in
forested areas of western Ethiopia. By mid twentieth century, their settlement extended to areas
near Dembi-Dollo in the north. Tthe Majang practiced shifting cultivation and animal husbandry.
Other economic activities of the Majang include beekeeping, hunting and fishing.
The Kunama
The Kunama people also called the Baza are one of the ancient inhabitants of western Eritrea on
the Gash and Tekkeze Rivers and in today’s northwestern and western Tigray. The Arab traveller
al-Ya‛qubi in 872 A.D. mentions the kingdom of Baza, which is a self-designation of the
47
Kunama. The Kunama had a customary institution called sanga-anene mandated with the
administration of the society. Other responsibilities of the sanga-anene included granting asylum
to new comers in the sanctuary of their compounds and performing rituals as part of
reconciliation process in case of homicides. The office of the sanga-anene was held by male
members of the society. The office was transmitted hereditarily from the eldest brother to the
next born through matrilineal line. The mainstay of Kunama’s economy is mixed agriculture.
Agriculture is based on the use of hoe, spades, sickles and the ox (camel)-drawn plough. Signs of
past practices of terraced agriculture are still visible in some areas of the Kunama. The staple
crop among the Kunama is sorghum (kina), which also has a ceremonial value. Other crops
grown are millet, pulses and maize. The Kunama also keep livestock mainly goats, sheep, oxen,
and camels.
5.6. The Gondarine Period and Zemene-Mesafint

5.6.1. The Gondarine Period
A. Political Developments
The period of Gondar began from the reign of Emperor Sartsa-Dengle when the political center
of Ethiopian emperors shifted to Gondar area. Emperor Sartsa-Dengle established royal camp at
Enfranz in 1571. Emperor Susenyos also tried to establish his capital near Gondar in such places
as Qoga, Gorgora, Danqaz and Azazo. Gondar was founded in 1636 when Fasiledas established
his political seat there.
Gondar achieved its glory during the reigns of its first three successive emperors: Fasiledas
(r.1632–67), Yohannes I (r.1667-82) and Iyasu I (r.1682- 1706). Among the major reforms
during these periods were the restoration of Orthodox Church as state religion, and the
establishment of a royal prison at Amba Wahni to solve problems stemming from power rivalry.
Emperor Yohannes I and his council established a separate quarter for Muslims at Addis Alem.
His successor, Iyasu I, reformed land tenure system, introduced a system of land measurement in
Begemder, taxes, and customs, and revised the Fetha Negest (the civil code).
The assassination of Iyasu the Great by a faction under the leadership of his own son, Tekle-
Haymanot, ushered in political instability in Gondar involving intrigues and poisoning of
reigning monarchs. Tekle-Haymanot was crowned in 1706 before the death of his father and was
in turn assassinated by Tewoflos in 1708. Tewoflos was again killed in 1711 by Yostos, who was
also poisoned in 1717 and replaced by Dawit III, who himself was poisoned and replaced by
Bakafa in 1721. Bakafa tried to restore stability with the support of his followers and his wife
Etege Mentewab until he was incapacitated in 1728. The Gondarine Period also witnessed
increased involvement of the Oromo in Imperial politics and the army as will be discussed
shortly.
From 1728 to 1768, Etege Mentewab together with her brother Ras-Bitwaded Walda Le’ul
(1732-1767) dominated the Gondarine court politics. Walda Le’ul was influential during the
reigns of Iyasu II (1730-55) and Iyoas (1755-69). Following his death in 1767, Etege Mentewab
was challenged by Wubit Amito, her daughter-in-law from Wollo. To counter the growing power
of the Wollo Oromo in the royal court, Mentewab sought the alliance of Ras Mika'el Sehul of
48
Tigray who was politically astute and militarily powerful. Mika'el Sehul succeeded in stabilizing
the situation but refused to return to Tigray although demanded by Iyoas. This was followed by
the killing of Iyoas and his replacement by an old man Yohannes II by Ras Mika'el. Soon Ras
Mika'el killed Yohannes II and put his son Takla-Haymanot II (1769-77) on power. This marked
the onset of the period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855).
B. Achievements of the Gondarine Period

Gondar became the center of state administration, learning, commerce, education, art, and crafts
for more than two centuries. The first three kings were successful not only in political affairs but
also in cultural developments. Gondar had great influence on the country’s cultural
developments. This enabled Gondar to repeat the splendors of Aksum and Lalibela. The cultural
achievements of the period led some writers to describe Gondarine period in history as Ethiopian
Renaissance.
Architecture: when Gondar served as a permanent capital, for about one hundred fifty years,
Ethiopian kings built significant secular buildings like castles, bridges, residences, bath, library,
towers, fortifications and churches of various size and shapes.
In the city’s compound, in addition to the most impressive building known as Fasil Gemb, there
are different palaces corresponding to Emperor Fasiledas, Yohannes I, Iyasu I, Dawit III, Bakafa
and Regent Queen Mentewab. The Gondarine style of architecture may have started before the
reign of emperor Fasiledas during the reign of Emperor Sartsa-Dengle at about 1586, as could be
seen from his palace at Guzara near Enfranz. The architectural styles of Fasiledas castle usually
have two strides and almost square, circular domed corner towers. Not only castles, but the
building of bridges are said to be predate the reign of Fasiledas. Emperor Sartsa-Dengel is said to
have built a very fine bridge near his palace at Guzara, and Emperor Susenyos likewise erected a
bridge over Blue Nile at Alata.
Painting: this period is known as for the production of a wealth of religious paintings on
manuscripts and on wood, ornaments, weapons and other accessories. The churches built by
Queen Mentwab were known for their beautiful paintings, cross and art works.
Literature: The Imperial and provincial scriptoria produced a great number of manuscripts.
Besides the Gospels, the Miracles of Mary, the Lives of Ethiopian Saints and the Litanies, many
other kinds of illuminated manuscripts were also produced. Gondar is also known for its
traditional medicine, music and poetry.
Trade and Urbanization: Gondar was a commercial center that connected long distance trade
routes of the southern region with Massawa and Metemma in the Ethio-Sudan border. Gold and
salt were used as medium of exchange. Daily markets were commonly held in the city. With
spread of urbanization, the city became residences of foreign communities like Indians, Greeks
and Armenians. The city had an estimated 60,000-70,000 population. In addition to its political
and commercial importance, it served as religious center of Christians, Muslims and Bete-Israel.
Besides, it served as the center of Ethiopian Orthodox Church until the middle of the nineteenth
49
century. Many of the Orthodox churches which served as education centers, known for their
excellence in teaching aqwaqwam, liturgical chanting were centered at Gondar.
5.6.2. The Period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855)

Zemene-Mesafint refers to the period when actual political power was in the hands of different
regional lords. The period lasted from the time Ras Michael Sehul "assassinated" king Iyoas in
1769 to 1855, when Kasa Hailu was crowned as Tewodros II.
Ras Mika’el who was a king-maker in the period attempted to dominate the other regional lords.
These measures made him highly unpopular because of which coalitions of lords of Gojjam,
Amhara, Lasta and Wollo fought and defeated him at the battle of Sarba-Kussa in 1771. Under
the reigns of his successors, there was relative stability but several regional lords evolved. The
main political regions that Zemene-Mesafint lords ruled were Tigray, Semen, Dembiya,
Begemedir, Lasta, Yejju, Wollo, Gojjam and Shewa. When compared to each other the “Yejju
dynasty” was the leading power during the Zemen-Mesafint with the center at Debre-tabor. Ali
Gwangul (Ali I or Ali Talaq) was considered as the founder of “Yejju dynasty” in 1786.
Yejju rule reached its zenith under Gugsa Marso (r.1803-1825) who made incessant struggle
against Ras Walde-Silassie of Enderta and Dejjazmatch Sabagadis Woldu of Agame. In 1826,
Gugsa's successor, Yimam (r.1825-8), defeated Hayle-Mariam Gebre of Simen. Maru of
Dambiya was also killed at the battle of Koso-Ber in 1827. The period of Zemene Mesafint was
brought to an end by Kasa Hailu of Qwara through a series of battles that lasted from 1840s to
1855.
Major features of Zemene-Mesafint include:
 absence of effective central government;

 the growing power and influence of the regional warlords;
 the domination of Yejju lords over other lords in northern Ethiopia;
 rivarly and compeition among regional lords to assume the position of king-maker;
 establishment of fragile coalitions to advance political interests;
 Ethiopian Orthodox Church was unable to play its traditional role of unifying the state
due to doctrinal disputes;
 Revival of foreign contacts that ended the “closed-door” policy.
In addition to the above features, there were developments in terms of literature, arts,
architecture etc during the period.
Unit 6:Internal Developments and External Relations of Ethiopia and the Horn, 1800-1941
(10 Hours)
Individual Assignment
1. List the types of Sources used in Historical Writing and the major Examples for Each?
2. Draw the Diagram of the Human Evolution (Tree)?
50

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Lecture Notes to Hist.

History of Ethiopia and the Horn Module Note (Hist.1012)

1.3. Historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn

1) The Development of History as a Field of Study:

2) Ethiopian Ancient writings:

3) Medieval Arab and Other visitors:

5) Missionaries, Travelers and Foreign Writers:

6) The Early Twentieth Century:

8) Africa and the Horn:

1.4. The Geographical Context

Ethiopia and the Horn has five principal drainage systems:

Unit 2: Peoples and Cultures in Ethiopia and the Horn

Cultural evolution of humans in history is conventionally grouped in to Stone Age (2million to

2.2. Neolithic Revolution

2.3. The Peopling of the Region

1. Afro-Asiatic: this super family is sub-divided into the following families:

b. Semitic: is divided into two:

2.3.2. Settlement Patterns

2.3.3. Economic Formations

2.4. Religion and Religious Processes

Unit 3: Politics, Economy and Society in Ethiopia to the End of the

3.2. Ancient States

B. Da’amat and Others

C. The Aksumite State

3.2.2.1. Bizamo, Damot, Enarya and Gafat

3.5. Socio-cultural Achievements

4.2.2. Consolidation and Territorial Expansion of the Christian Kingdom

4.2.3. Evangelization, Religious Movements, and Religious Reforms of Zara-Yaqob

organization, which emphasized poverty, absolute self-subsistence, equality and autonomy

4.3. Political and Socio-Economic Dynamics in Muslim Sultanates

4.3.1. The Rise of Adal

4.3.2. Trade and the Expansion of Islam

4.5. External Relations

4.5.2. Relations with Christian Europe

Christian Kingdom, Imam Ahmed established a civil administrative bureaucracy constituted

5.2. Foreign Intervention and Religious Controversies

5.3. Population Movements

5.3.2. Gadaa System and Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)

Gadaa-grade Age Roles

B. The Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)

5.4. Interaction and Integration across Ethnic and Religious Diversities

The Emirate of Harar

5.5.2. Peoples and States in Central and South Central Parts

5.5.3. Peoples and States in the South

5.5.4. Peoples and States in Southwestern Part

5.5.5. Peoples and States in the West

5.6. The Gondarine Period and Zemene-Mesafint

B. Achievements of the Gondarine Period

5.6.2. The Period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855)

Major features of Zemene-Mesafint include:

 absence of effective central government;

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