New MEI Add-On PowerPoints

• These PowerPoints are our latest addition to the MEI lesson plans
• They follow the layout and content of the MEI lesson plans. The idea behind them is to teach
from the formal lesson plan with the PowerPoint as a supplement for the student’s learning
• We’re calling this the “Beta” version – They’re brand new and we’re looking for your input on
the layout, navigation, content, ease of use, and anything else you might want to pass along
• Thank you!

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 Recent Changes
Date Lesson Change

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 Navigating to a Lesson Navigating from a Lesson

Section List
• Click the desired Section (slide 4)
 If the PowerPoint presentation has
not been started, hold the Control
key and then click the section

Lesson List
• Click the desired Lesson • Click the Black Arrow to return to
 If the PowerPoint presentation has the Section List
not been started, hold the Control  Black arrow is on each Lesson List
key and then click the lesson
 If the presentation has not been
started, hold Control and click

Lesson Plan
• Start the presentation / lesson • Click the White Arrow to return to
the Lesson List
 White arrow is on the first and last
slide of every lesson
 If the presentation has not been
started, hold Control and click

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 MEI Add-On Lessons

III XIII XIV

Preflight Emergency Multiengine

Preparation Operations Operations

5
 Operation of Systems
• The MEI PTS lists the Operation of Systems task Section III as well as Section XIV
• The Operation of System presentation can be found in Section XIV.A

6
 XIII. Emergency Operations
A. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions
B. Engine Failure During Takeoff, Before VMC
C. Engine Failure After Lift-Off
D. Approach & Landing with an Inoperative Engine
E. Emergency Descent
F. Emergency Equipment and Survival Gear

7
Systems and Equipment
Malfunctions

8
 Overview
Content

• What • Smoke & Fire

 The knowledge and procedures to handle • Engine Malfunctions
problems that may occur in the airplane
• Propeller Malfunctions
• Hydraulic Malfunctions
• Why
 The key to successful management of an • Electrical Malfunctions
emergency situation, and / or preventing a non-
normal situation from progressing into a true • Induction Icing
emergency, is a thorough knowledge of, and
adherence to, the necessary procedures • Door or Window Open in Flight
• Runaway Trim
• Flap Malfunction
• Pressurization Malfunction
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 Smoke and Fire – In Flight
• In any fire, it is essential the source is discovered first
• Engine Fire
 Indications: Smoke, flames, discoloration, bubbling, melting of the cowling
 Follow the POH (1st step is usually to shut off fuel) – If flames are put out, do not attempt a restart
 Perform an emergency landing

• Electrical Fire
 Indications: Distinct odor, smoke
 Try to identify the problem – check circuit breakers, lights, instruments, avionics
 If the problem can be identified, turn that component off immediately
 Follow the POH
 Generally, shut off all electrical equipment and turn it back on one by one to identify and isolate the problem

• Cabin Fire
 Cause: Smoking, electrical or heating malfunctions, etc.
 Two immediate demands: Attack the fire, and get the airplane safely on the ground as quickly as possible

10
 Smoke and Fire – On the Ground
• In any fire, it is essential the source is discovered first
• Engine Fire
 Shut down the engine, turn off the electronics and evacuate the airplane

• Electrical and / or Cabin Fire

 Immediately turn off the master switch and shut down the engine
 Use the fire extinguisher and evacuate, as necessary

11
 Engine Roughness / Partial Power Loss
• Follow the POH procedures

Possible Causes Corrective Action

Improper Mixture Adjust mixture for smooth operation
Defective ignition or valves Consult maintenance personnel
Detonation / Preignition Reduce power, enrich mixture, open cowl flaps, land as
soon as practical
Induction air leak Reduce power, consult maintenance
Plugged fuel nozzle Reduce power, consult maintenance
Excessive fuel pressure / fuel flow Lean mixture

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 Oil Pressure
• High Oil Pressure
 Possible cause: Cold oil, internal plugging
 Corrective action: If cold, allow the engine to warm, if not, reduce power and land ASAP

• Low Oil Pressure

 Possible Cause: Broken pressure relief valve, insufficient oil, burned out bearings
 Corrective Action:
 Single Engine: Land as soon as possible
 Multi Engine: Feather the propeller and stop the engine, then land

• Fluctuating Oil Pressure

 Possible Cause: Low oil supply, loose oil lines, defective pressure relief valve
 Corrective Action:
 Single Engine: Land as soon as possible
 Multi Engine: Feather the propeller and stop the engine, then land

13
 Fuel Starvation
• Indications
 Rough running engine leading to a stopped engine

• Causes
 Empty fuel tanks
 Blocked fuel lines

• Action
 Follow the POH procedures
 In general, turn on the boost pump(s), verify fuel is on, switch fuel tanks, adjust the mixture

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 Engine Overheat
• Indication: Oil temperature gauge

Possible Causes Corrective Action

Low oil Reduce power. Land ASAP
Oil congealed in the cooler Reduce power. Land. Preheat the engine
Inadequate engine cooling Reduce power, increase airspeed
Detonation or preignition Check cylinder head temps, enrich mixture, reduce MP
Obstruction in the oil cooler Reduce power. Land ASAP
Damaged or improper baffle seals Reduce power. Land ASAP
Defective seals Reduce power. Land ASAP

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 Propeller Malfunctions
• Feather the affected propeller / engine
• Possible Propeller Malfunctions
 Gain of Manifold Pressure
 Surging rpm or Overspeed
 Imminent Engine Failure

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 Hydraulic Malfunction
• Some GA aircraft use hydraulic pressure to raise and lower the landing gear
• If the hydraulic pump were to fail, there are alternate means to raise and / or lower the gear
 Procedures will vary with aircraft
 Follow the POH procedures

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 Electrical Malfunction
• Cause: Failure of the generator / alternator
 Battery is now the only source of electrical power

• Indication: Ammeter
• General Steps
 Turn off all but the most necessary electrical equipment
 Notify ATC immediately and request vectors for a landing at the nearest usable airport
 If not in contact with ATC, divert to the nearest usable airport
 Expect to make a no flap landing and anticipate manual gear extension
 Keep in mind: Electrically powered gear and flaps use power at rates much great than other equipment

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 Induction Icing
• Cause:
 As air is ingested, moisture can freeze in the induction system, reducing or stopping air to the engine
 Ice can also form on the exterior and clog the air intakes

• Corrective Action:
 Leave icing conditions
 Use alternate air source

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 Door or Window Open in Flight
• Follow the POH procedures
• In general, adhere to the following:
 Concentrate on flying the plane
 Do not rush to land
 Do not release the seatbelt to reach the door
 Most doors will not stay open
 Slip toward the door may open it wider and a slip away may push it closed

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 Inoperative or Runaway Trim
• Grip the controls and maintain control while disengaging the electric trim system
• Follow the POH procedures
• If the reason for the runaway trim is obvious and has been resolved, engage the breaker

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 Flap Malfunction
• Total Flap Failure
 Requires substantially more runway than normal (as much as 50% more)
 Nose-high attitude
 Wider, longer pattern
 Tendency to float during roundout

• Asymmetric (split) Flap

 One flap deploys or retracts while the other remains in position
 Indicated by a roll toward the wing with the least flap deflection
 Crossed Controls
 Do not attempt to land with a crosswind from the side of the deployed flap
 Be aware of the different stall speeds of each wing
 Higher-than-normal approach airspeed

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 Pressurization Malfunction
• Indications:
 Cabin altitude indicator
 Hypoxia symptoms

• Corrective Actions:
 Use supplemental oxygen immediately
 Descend to a safe altitude

• Hypoxia is the primary danger of decompression

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 Questions?

24
Engine Failure
Before VMC

25
 Overview
Content
• What • Engine Failure before VMC
 An engine failure during the takeoff roll
 The pilot must maintain the centerline while
• Common Errors
stopping on the remaining runway

• Why
 An improperly handled engine failure below
VMC could be hazardous

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 Engine Failure Before VMC
• DO NOT attempt to takeoff

• Procedure
 Maintain directional control
 Smoothly & promptly close the throttles
 Bring the aircraft to a stop

• Common Errors
 Failure to follow the prescribed procedure
 Failure to recognize the engine failure
 Failure to promptly close the throttles
 Faulty directional control & use of brakes

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 Questions?

28
Engine Failure
After Lift-Off

29
 Overview
Content
• What • Controlling the Aircraft
 Elements involved with safely handling an
engine failure while airborne • Engine Failure Procedures
• Engine Failure after Lift-Off

• Why
 It’s essential that a pilot can maintain control of
the airplane in the case of an engine failure

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 Controlling the Aircraft
• Recognize the Engine Failure
 Yaw toward the dead engine

• Zero-Sideslip Configuration
 1-3o bank
 ½ ball toward the operating engine

Source: Airplane Flying Handbook, FAA

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 Engine Failure Procedures
• Maintain Control
• Full Power
• Reduce Drag
• Identify
• Verify
• Fix or Feather

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 Engine Failure after Lift-Off
• Gear Down
 Land on the remaining runway

Source: Airplane Flying Handbook, FAA

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 Engine Failure after Lift-Off
• Gear Up, Inadequate Single-Engine Climb
 Landing must be accomplished

Source: Airplane Flying Handbook, FAA

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 Engine Failure after Lift-Off
• Gear Up, Adequate Single-Engine Climb
 Return to land

Source: Airplane Flying Handbook, FAA

35
 Engine Failure after Lift-Off
• Enroute
 Maintain control
 Engine failure procedures / checklists
 Land as necessary

Source: Airplane Flying Handbook, FAA

36
 Questions?

37
Approach & Landing with
an Inoperative Engine

38
 Overview
Content
• What • Controlling the Aircraft
 Approach and landing with an inoperative
engine • Engine Failure Procedures
 Different procedures than a normal approach and
landing
• Approach
• Landing

• Why
 Changes in performance and configuration
require the aircraft be flown differently to
maintain safety

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 Controlling the Aircraft
• Recognize the Engine Failure
 Yaw toward the dead engine

• Zero-Sideslip Configuration
 1-3o bank
 ½ ball toward the operating engine

Source: Airplane Flying Handbook, FAA

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 Engine Failure Procedures
• Maintain Control
• Full Power
• Reduce Drag
• Identify
• Verify
• Fix or Feather

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 Approach & Landing
• Approach
 Zero Sideslip
 Slightly Higher Approach Angle
 Manufacturer’s Airspeed & Configuration
 Go-around is not Preferable

• Landing
 Basically a normal landing

42
 Questions?

43
Emergency Descent

44
 Overview
Content
• What • Overview
 Maneuver for descending as rapidly as possible
• Performing the Emergency Descent

• Why
 A number of situations may demand an
immediate and rapid descent for the sake of
survival

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 Overview
• Objective
 Descend as soon and as rapidly as possible within the structural limitations of the airplane

• Situations that may necessitate an emergency descent

 Fire
 Smoke
 Loss of cabin pressurization
 Any other demanding situation (medical, injury, etc.)

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 Prior to the Maneuver
• Pre-maneuver checklist, and clear the area
• Safe altitude and airspeed

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 Emergency Descent Maneuver
• Power idle, high rpm
• Extend flaps and gear, as specified by the manufacturer
• Lower the nose to maintain maximum allowable airspeed based on the procedure
 Never exceed VNE or VFE, and if turbulent, do not exceed VA

• As the nose is lowered, begin a 90 o left turn at 30-45o of bank

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 Level Off
• Level off should be smooth to prevent overstressing the airplane
• 10% rule works well
 In the case of a real-life emergency descent, do what is necessary to land safely and stay alive

• Increase power to the cruise setting, or as required

• Return to a normal configuration
 May not be necessary if continuing directly into an emergency landing

• Trim and adjust the mixture

49
 Questions?

50
Emergency Equipment
and Survival Gear

51
 Overview
Content
• What • Appropriate Equipment
 The equipment carried onboard an airplane to
aid in survival and rescue operations • Equipment Use & Care
 Equipment can and should vary by flight
(terrain, climate, season, etc.)

• Why
 Carrying, taking proper care of, and
understanding the proper use of survival
equipment greatly increases the chance of
survival in the case the equipment becomes
necessary

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 Appropriate Equipment
• Over uninhabited areas, it’s wise to take survival equipment for the type of climate and terrain
 Equipment should provide sustenance, shelter, medical care, and a means to summon help

• General Items to Consider:

 First aid kit and field medical guide  Rope
 Flashlight and batteries  Matches
 Food and water  Shelter
 Multi-tool or knife  Signaling device

• More specific items can be considered based on the climate and terrain

53
 Equipment Use and Care
• ELT
 Transmits a downed aircraft’s location for search and rescue
 FAR 91.207: ELT Inspections & Requirements
 Testing
 Analog 121.5 / 243.0 MHz: First 5 minutes after any hour
 Digital 406 MHz: In accordance with manufacturer’s instructions

• Fire Extinguisher
 Purpose: Used to fight / extinguish fires
 Operation: Pull the pin, point and squeeze the handle (aim at the base of the fire)
 Servicing: Verify the expiration dates, inspection date, and proper charge
 Storage: Ensure securely attached or stored in the proper location

54
 Equipment Use and Care
• Emergency Axe
 Purpose: Provides a means to exit the airplane in case the door(s) cannot be opened
 Operation: Use the axe to escape as described by the manufacturer
 Storage: Should be stored in its mount as the manufacturer intends

• Survival Gear
 Servicing: Verify the equipment is in good working order
 Storage: Store the gear in a safe accessible location on the airplane

55
 Questions?

56
 XIV. Postflight Procedures
A. Postflight Procedures

57
 XIV. Multiengine Operations
A. Operation of Systems
B. Performance & Limitations
C. Flight Principles – Engine Inoperative
D. Maneuvering with One Engine Inoperative
E. VMC Demonstration
F. Airspeeds & Configurations with an Inoperative Engine

58
Operation of Systems

59
 Overview
Content

• What • Primary Flight Controls & Trim

 The primary systems found on most GA aircraft • Flaps
 Engine, propeller, induction, ignition, as well as
the fuel, lubrication, cooling, electrical, landing
• Powerplant
gear, and environment systems • FADEC
• Propellers

• Why • Landing Gear & Brakes (Hydraulic)

 Understanding how the airplane works will • Fuel Systems
allow for better problem identification and
troubleshooting • Electrical Systems
 The pilot will have a better understanding of the • Avionics and Flight Instruments
airplane as a whole
• Environmental Systems
• Deicing and Anti-Icing Systems

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 Primary Flight Controls and Trim
• Ailerons
 Control roll about the longitudinal axis

• Elevator
 Controls pitch about the lateral axis

• Rudder
 Controls yaw about the vertical axis

• Trim Tabs
 Relieve the need to maintain constant pressure on a flight control

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 Ailerons
• Roll about the longitudinal axis
• Move in opposite directions of each other
 Adverse Yaw

• Types of Ailerons
 Differential
 Frise-type
 Coupled
 Flaperons

Differential Flaperons Frise-type

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 Elevator
• Pitch about the lateral axis
• Back pressure moves the elevator up, Forward pressure moves it down
• Variations of Elevators
 Conventional
 T-Tail
 Stabilator

• Safety Systems
 Control Stop
 Elevator Down Spring
 Stick Pusher

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 Rudder
• Yaw about the vertical axis
• When deflected into the airflow, a horizontal force is exerted in the opposite direction
• V-Tail Aircraft

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 Trim
• Relieves the need to maintain constant pressure on a flight control
• Types
 Trim Tabs (most common)
 Balance Tabs
 Servo Tabs
 Anti-Servo Tabs
 Ground Adjustable Tabs
 Adjustable Stabilizer

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 Flaps (Secondary Flight Control)
• Most common high lift devices used on aircraft
• Types of Flaps
 Plain Flap
 Split Flap
 Slotted Flap (most popular on aircraft today)
 Fowler Flap (type of slotted flap)

66
 Powerplant
• Basic Components
 Cylinders
 Crankcase
 Accessory Housing

• Operating Cycle
 Intake
 Compression
 Power
 Exhaust

• Spark Ignition
• Compression Ignition
 Reduced costs, simpler design, more reliable
 No spark

• Horizontally Opposed
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 Ignition System
• Provides the spark to ignite the fuel-air mixture
• Components
 Magnetos
 Spark Plugs
 Leads
 Ignition Switch

• Operation
 Starter engaged – Battery initially powers the system and rotates the crankshaft
 Crankshaft activates magnetos which power spark plugs, producing a spark
 Combustion produces piston movement which drives the crankshaft
 Once the engine can move on its own, the starter is no longer necessary

• Dual Ignition System

 Two sets of everything
 Improves combustion
 If one magneto fails, the other continues (slight power decrease)
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 Induction System – Carburetor
• Carburetor mixes the fuel and air prior to it reaching the combustion chamber
 Float (common)
 Pressure (rare)

• Float Type Carburetor

 Float chamber meters fuel to be mixed with the air
 Air enters through an air filter into the carburetor and then through a venturi
 Fuel and air mix based on the throttle valve position

• Carburetor Icing
 Fuel vaporization / decreased pressure in venturi can cause a temperature drop
 Fixed Pitch Indications: Drop in RPM, then possibly engine roughness
 Constant Speed Indications: Decrease in manifold pressure, but not RPM

• Carburetor Heat
 Used to combat icing by preheating the air prior to reaching the carburetor
 Decreases engine power, sometimes up to 15%

69
 Induction System – Carburetor

70
 Induction System – Fuel Injection
• Fuel is injected directly into the cylinders
• Advantages
 Reduction in icing, improved fuel flow, faster throttle response, precise mixture control, better fuel
distribution, easier cold weather starts

• Disadvantages
 Difficult to start a hot engine, vapor lock, problems restarting an engine after fuel starvation

• Components and Operation

• Engine-Driven Fuel Pump
• Auxiliary Fuel Pump
• Fuel-Air Control Unit
• Fuel Manifold (distributor)
• Discharge Nozzles
• Fuel Pressure / Flow Indicators

71
 Induction System – Fuel Injection

72
 Oil Systems
• Functions
 Lubricates moving parts of the engine
 Cools the engine
 Seal between cylinder walls and pistons
 Carries away contaminants

• Types of Oil Systems

 Wet-Sump (pictured)
 Dry-Sump

• Indications
 Oil Pressure Gauge
 Oil Temperature Gauge

73
 Cooling Systems
• Types of Cooling
 Air Cooling
 Liquid Cooling

• Air Cooling
 Operation
 Outside air is directed to the hottest parts of the engine
 Dependent on air flow
 Monitoring Temperature
 Oil Temperature Gauge
 Cylinder Head Temperature Gauge
 Controlling Temperature
 Increase airspeed, enrich fuel-air mixture, reduce power, and / or open cowl flaps

74
 Exhaust Systems
• Vents burned combustion gases overboard, and provides heat for the cabin / defrost
• Engine Exhaust
 After combustion, exhaust gases exit through the exhaust manifold to the atmosphere

• Cabin Heat
 Outside air is ducted through a shroud around the exhaust muffler
 Exiting exhaust gases heat the muffler which heats the air around the muffler
 Heated air is ducted to the cabin
 Exhaust must be in good condition to ensure gases don’t enter the cabin (carbon monoxide poisoning)

• Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) Probe

 Measures the temperature of the gases at the exhaust manifold
 Temperature varies based on fuel-air ratio
 Highly accurate in obtaining the proper mixture setting

75
 FADEC
• Digital computer used to control the engine and propeller
• Optimizes performance
 Uses speed, temperature, and pressure sensors to monitor cylinder status
 Calculates the ideal pulse for each injector, adjusts ignition timing and fuel flow as necessary

• Simplifies Systems
 Eliminates pilot control of magnetos, carburetor heat, mixture, propeller, and engine priming
 A single throttle is characteristic of FADEC aircraft (set the throttle, the computer does the rest)

• Safety
 Two separate, identical channels for redundancy
 Losing the FADEC could result in engine failure
 Backup electrical source must be available in case of electrical failure
 Usually, a separate generator connected to the engine

76
 Propeller
• Rotating airfoil
• Engine rotates the propeller which generates thrust
 Amount of thrust varies with shape, angle of attack, and RPM

• Propeller is twisted
 Highest pitch is at the hub, lowest pitch is at the tip

• Installation
 Mounted on a shaft connected to the engine
 Direct connection: propeller rpm = engine rpm
 Geared connection: propeller rpm is different than the engine
 Ex. DA42 – 1.69:1

77
 Fixed Pitch Propeller
• Fixed blade angle set by the manufacturer
 Not ideal for cruise or climb

• Climb vs Cruise Propeller

 Climb: Lower pitch and therefore less drag (higher rpm & more hp)
 Cruise: Higher pitch and therefore more drag (lower rpm & less hp)

• Controls and Indications

 Tachometer
 Throttle regulates rpm which controls the fuel-air to the engine

78
 Adjustable Pitch Propeller
• Governor adjusts the pitch of the propeller to maintain a specific rpm
• Operation
 Increasing airspeed or decreased propeller load – governor increases blade angle to maintain rpm
 Decreasing airspeed or increased propeller load – governor decreases blade angle to maintain rpm
 If the governor reaches a pitch stop, rpm will increase / decrease like a fixed pitch propeller

• Controls and Indications

 Throttle – Controls power output, displayed on the Manifold Pressure Gauge
 Propeller – Regulates rpm, displayed on the Tachometer

• Adjusting Power and RPM

 Lower = Left to right (Reduce manifold pressure, then rpm)
 Raise = Right to left (Increase rpm, then manifold pressure)

79
 Propeller Blade Pitch Changes

80
 Feathering
• Minimizes drag in the case of an engine failure
• Full feathering, counterweighted, oil-pressure-to-decrease-pitch design
 Counterweights vs Oil pressure

• Unfeathering
 POH procedure
 Accumulator

81
 Landing Gear
• Two main wheels, one on either side of the fuselage, and a third wheel at the front or rear
• Tricycle Gear (third wheel is at the nose)
 Allows more forceful braking
 Permits better forward visibility
 Less subject to ground loop
 Nosewheel can be steerable or castering

• Tailwheel Landing Gear (third wheel is at the rear)

 Additional ground clearance for a large propeller
 More desirable on unimproved fields
 Directional control is more difficult
 Diminished forward visibility on the ground

• Fixed vs Retractable
 Fixed – Always extended
 Retractable

82
 Hydraulics
• Standard Components
 Reservoir, pump, filter, selector valve, relief valve, actuator or servo
 Servo: Cylinder with a piston inside that moves a system or flight control
 Can be single- or double-acting (fluid can be applied to one or both sides)

• Operation
 Fluid is pumped from the reservoir through a filter and to an actuator or servo
 Selector valve allows the fluid direction to be controlled
 Relief valve provides an outlet in the event of excessive pressure

83
 Brakes
• Located on the main wheels
• Applied by foot pedals (most common) or hand control
 Foot pedals operate independently and allow for differential braking
 Differential braking assists in steering

84
 Fuel Systems
• Types of Fuel Systems
 Gravity Feed
 Fuel Pump

• Fuel Tank
 Normally located in the wings and vented to maintain pressure
 Strainer

• Fuel Selector
 Allows selection of fuel from various tanks

• Fuel Primer
 Assists with engine start

• Gauges
 Fuel Quantity
 Fuel Pressure

85
 Electrical Systems
• Power Generation
 Alternator / Generator
 Voltage Regulator – Controls the rate of charge to the battery

• Power Storage
 Batteries, primarily the main battery

• Power Distribution
 Bus bars

• Protection
 Fuses or circuit breakers

• Indications
 Ammeter
 Loadmeter

86
 Electrical System

87
 Avionics
• Vary greatly, especially with the large-scale acceptance of glass displays
 Digital displays, GPS, autopilots, radios, traditional instruments (vacuum, gyro, solid state, etc.)

• Be very familiar with the avionics displays and instruments associated with your aircraft
 Manage automation
 Do not become distracted with the seemingly unlimited functionality of glass cockpits

• Reference the avionics user manual(s)

88
 Pitot-Static System
• Airspeed Indicator, Altimeter, Vertical Speed Indicator
• How it Works
 Static pressure (still pressure) is measured at a flush static port where air is not disturbed
 Connects to all 3 instruments
 Pitot pressure (impact pressure) is measured through a pitot tube pointed into the relative wind
 Connects to the airspeed indicator

89
 Altimeter
• Operation
 Static air pressure tries to compress wafers while natural springiness tries to expand them
 Compression and expansion move gears / linkages to change the altitude displayed

• Kollsman Window
 Allows you to set reference pressure from which altitude is measured
 1” Hg = 1,000’ / Pressure Altitude = 29.92” / Indicated Altitude = local altimeter setting

• Nonstandard Temperature
 Warmer than standard air is less dense and pressure levels are farther apart
 True Altitude > Indicated Altitude

• Nonstandard Pressure
 High to low pressure: As pressure decreases, the altimeter registers it as a climb
 Pilot descends to maintain altitude. True altitude < Indicated altitude

• Remember: From hot to cold, or from high to low, look out below

90
 Vertical Speed Indicator
• Operation
 Diaphragm is directly connected to static pressure
 Casing has a calibrated leak, delaying the effect of the pressure change
 During a climb / descent the diaphragm immediately expands / contracts while pressure in the case lags
 Difference in pressure is displayed as rate of climb

91
 Airspeed Indicator
• Differential pressure gauge indicating the difference between pitot and static pressure
• Operation
 Diaphragm receives pressure from pitot tube
 Instrument case receives pressure from the static port
 Increasing pitot pressure or decreasing static pressure expands the diaphragm, and vice versa
 Gearing displays the change in airspeed

92
 Electronic Flight Display
• Same information (airspeed, altitude, vertical speed), but via new methods
• Air Data Computer (ADC)
 Information is received from pitot tube and static port inputs, but the processing is different
 ADC processes the inputs and displays airspeed, altitude and vertical speed
 No diaphragms, gearing, or linkages

93
 Gyroscopic System
• Attitude Indicator, Heading Indicator, Turn Coordinator
• How it Works
 Gyros
 Rigidity
 Precession

• Power Sources
 Electrical
 Pneumatic (vacuum)
 Venturi Tube
 Wet-Type Vacuum
 Dry-Air Pump
 Pressure

94
 Gyroscopic – Pressure System

95
 Attitude Indicator
• Operation
 Mounted in a horizontal plane
 Double gimbal allows display of pitch and roll
 Horizon disk is attached to the gimbals – Airplane pitches / rolls around the horizon disk
 Mini aircraft appears to be flying relative to the horizon

• Errors
 Slight nose up indication during a rapid acceleration, and vice versa
 Possibility of a small bank and pitch error after a 180 o turn
 Tiny amounts of friction over time can cause precession / tilting
 Pull the knob to return to proper position

96
 Heading Indicator
• Operation
 Gyro rotates in a vertical plane sensing rotation around the vertical axis
 Compass is used to set the appropriate heading; rigidity causes it to maintain the heading

• Errors
 Precession results in heading drift, and the Earth rotates at 15 o per hour
 Check and reset the heading indicator every 15 minutes

97
 Turn and Slip Indicator / Coordinator
• Turn and Slip Indicator
 Turn needle displays direction and rate of turn
 Gyro rotates in the vertical plane showing movement around the longitudinal axis
 Due to precession, a yawing force causes the gyro to tilt left or right

• Turn Coordinator
 Like turn and slip indicator, but mounted at an angle
 Initially shows roll rate, then rate of turn

98
 Electronic Flight Display
• Gyroscopic instrument replaces with AHRS (Attitude and Heading Reference System)
• Spinning gyros are replaced with solid-state laser systems that do not tumble
• Heading information comes from a magnetometer that senses Earth’s lines of magnetic flux
• All information is processed and displayed on the PFD

99
 Environmental Heating
• Types of Heating Systems
 Exhaust
 Fuel Fired
 Combustion Heater
 Bleed Air Heating

100
 Environmental: Pressurization
• Aircraft are flown at high altitudes for 2 reasons:
 More efficient
 Avoid weather and turbulence by flying above it

• Operation
 Cabin, flight, and baggage compartments can contain air under pressure
 Air is compressed, conditioned and sent to the cabin
 Air exits through an outflow valve

• Control System
 Cabin Pressure Regulator
 Outflow Valve
 Safety Valve

• Instruments
 Pressure Differential Gauge
 Cabin Altimeter
 Cabin Rate of Climb / Descent
101
 Deice and Anti-Ice Systems
• Airfoil
 Deice Boots
 Thermal Anti-Ice
 Weeping Wing

• Windscreen and Propeller

 Alcohol
 Electric Heat

102
 Questions?

103
Performance &
Limitations

104
 Overview
Content
• What • Determining Weight & Balance
 Operating data for the airplane
• Atmospheric Conditions & Performance
 Takeoff, climb, range, endurance, and landing
• Performance Charts
• Determining Performance
• Why
 Mandatory for safe and efficient operations • Exceeding Limitations
• Single Engine Performance

105
 Determining Weight & Balance
• CG = Total Moment ÷ Total Weight
• Total Weight
 Empty Weight + Everything to be loaded

• Total Moment
 Calculate the moments of each item

106
 Atmospheric Conditions & Performance
• Atmospheric Pressure
 Air density affects performance

• Air Density varies:

 Directly with Pressure
 Inversely with Temperature
 Inversely with Altitude
 Inversely with Humidity

• Air Density & Performance

 Less dense air reduces Power, Thrust, and Lift

107
 Performance Charts
• Section 5 of the POH
• Pressure Altitude
 Indicated altitude corrected for non-standard pressure
 1,000 x (29.92 – Current Altimeter Setting) + Elevation

• Density Altitude
 Pressure altitude corrected for non-standard temperature
 120 x (Current Temperature – 15o C) + PA

• Performance Charts
 Follow the POH procedures to calculate the necessary performance information

108
 Determining Performance
• Use the performance chart information and relate it to the planned flight
 Runway length, Climb rate, fuel burn, etc.

• Charts do not make allowance for proficiency or mechanical deterioration

• If conditions change, recalculate performance

109
 Exceeding Limitations
• Section 2 of the POH
• Limitations establish boundaries for which the airplane can be safely operated
• Effects of Exceeding Limitations
 Attempting to takeoff or land without sufficient runway
 Attempting to clear an obstacle that performance will not support
 Insufficient fuel to reach the intended airport
 Using the wrong type of fuel
 Exceeding structural / aerodynamic limits
 Exceeding maximum crosswind component

110
 Single Engine Performance
• Single Engine Performance Information
 Accelerate Stop
 Accelerate Go
 Single Engine Climb Rate
 Service & Absolute Ceilings

• Ensure performance is compatible with the planned flight

111
 Questions?

112
Flight Principles –
Engine Inoperative

113
 Overview
Content
• What • Critical Engine
 Critical engine, or which engine has the most
adverse effect on control & performance • VMC
 Minimum controllable airspeeds
• VMC and the Loss of Control
 Managing an engine failure
• VMC and Stall Speed

• Why • Engine Failure during / after Lift-off

 Essential to understand the elements involved in
an engine failure in order to maintain control
and safety

114
 Critical Engine
• Engine whose failure most adversely affects control & performance
 LEFT ENGINE

• 4 Factors (PAST)
 P-Factor
 Accelerated Slipstream
 Spiraling Slipstream
 Torque

P-Factor Accelerated Slipstream

Spiraling Slipstream Torque

115
 Minimum Controllable Airspeed – VMC
• Minimum controllable airspeed with the critical engine inoperative

• VMC Factors
 Critical Engine Windmilling  Flaps in Takeoff Position
 Maximum Takeoff Power  Cowl Flaps in Takeoff Position
 Sea Level Conditions  Trimmed for Takeoff
 Most Unfavorable Weight  Out of Ground Effect
 Most Unfavorable CG  Maximum 5o of bank
 Landing Gear Retracted

Source: Airplane Flying Handbook, FAA

116
 Aircraft Control, VMC and Performance
Factor Control VMC Performance
Windmilling Propeller
Max Takeoff Power
Sea Level (Low DA)
Light Weight
Aft CG
Gear Up
T/O Flaps (Up)
T/O Cowl Flaps
(Open)
Trimmed for Takeoff ? ? ?
Out of Ground Effect
Bank Angle (Max 5o)

117
 VMC and the Loss of Control
• Control is lost when
 Thrust arm moment (T x X) > Rudder arm moment (R x Y)

• Recovery
 Reduce operating engine power
 Decrease pitch attitude

118
 VMC and Stall Speed
• VMC decreases with altitude, while stall speed remains the same

• Altitude where VMC = VS and above is extremely dangerous

Source: Airplane Flying Handbook, FAA

119
 VYSE
• Single engine best rate of climb speed
 Blue line

• ≥ VYSE at all times when single engine

 Exception: VXSE

Source: Airplane Flying Handbook, FAA

120
 Engine Failure During / After Lift-Off
• Most critical time to suffer engine loss: Takeoff and Go-Around
 Maintain Control
 Pitch for VYSE
 Engine Failure Procedures

• Engine Failure Scenarios

 Gear Down
 Gear Up, Inadequate Climb
 Gear Up, Adequate Climb

121
 Engine Failure: Gear Down
• Land on the remaining runway

Source: Airplane Flying Handbook, FAA

122
 Engine Failure: Gear Up, Inadequate Climb
• Landing must be accomplished

Source: Airplane Flying Handbook, FAA

123
 Engine Failure: Gear Up, Adequate Climb
• Return to land

Source: Airplane Flying Handbook, FAA

124
 Engine Failure During / After Lift-Off
• Plan Ahead
 Engine Failure on the Roll: Reduce power, maintain directional control
 Engine Failure Airborne, Gear Down: Maintain directional control, land straight ahead
 Engine Failure Airborne, Gear Up: Maintain directional control, configure to return for landing

125
 Questions?

126
Maneuvering with One
Engine Inoperative

127
 Overview
Content
• What • Controlling an Engine Failure
 Ability to properly and safely control and engine
failure • Managing the Engine Failure
• Flying on One Engine

• Why
 Necessary for safety
 An incompetent pilot during an engine failure is
unlikely to survive

128
 Controlling an Engine Failure
• Recognize the Engine Failure
 Yaw toward the dead engine

• Zero-Sideslip Configuration
 1-3o bank
 ½ ball toward the operating engine

Source: Airplane Flying Handbook, FAA

129
 Managing the Engine Failure
• Maintain Control
• Maximize Power
• Minimize Drag
• Identify
• Verify
• Fix or Feather
 Restart, if an option

130
 Flying on One Engine
• Power
 80%

• Trim
 Rudder & Pitch

• Airspeed
 ≥ VYSE

• Fuel Considerations
 Cross feed?

• Divert or Continue
 Diversion procedures / Rules of thumb

131
 Questions?

132
VMC Demonstration

133
 Overview
Content
• What • How VMC Works
 Procedure used to regain control of the aircraft
in the case that the pilot allows it to slow close • VMC and Loss of Control
to or below the minimum controllable airspeed
• VMC and Stall Speed

• VMC Demonstration
• Why
 Safety, safety, safety!
 Without proper recovery techniques, slowing
below VMC can be extremely hazardous, if not
fatal

134
 Minimum Controllable Airspeed – VMC
• Minimum controllable airspeed with the critical engine inoperative

• VMC Factors
 Critical Engine Windmilling  Flaps in Takeoff Position
 Maximum Takeoff Power  Cowl Flaps in Takeoff Position
 Sea Level Conditions  Trimmed for Takeoff
 Most Unfavorable Weight  Out of Ground Effect
 Most Unfavorable CG  Maximum 5o of bank
 Landing Gear Retracted

Source: Airplane Flying Handbook, FAA

135
 Aircraft Control, VMC and Performance
Factor Control VMC Performance
Windmilling Propeller
Max Takeoff Power
Sea Level (Low DA)
Light Weight
Aft CG
Gear Up
T/O Flaps (Up)
T/O Cowl Flaps
(Open)
Trimmed for Takeoff ? ? ?
Out of Ground Effect
Bank Angle (Max 5o)

136
 VMC and the Loss of Control
• Control is lost when
 Thrust arm moment (T x X) > Rudder arm moment (R x Y)

• Recovery
 Reduce operating engine power
 Decrease pitch attitude

137
 VMC and Stall Speed
• VMC decreases with altitude, while stall speed remains the same

• Altitude where VMC = VS and above is extremely dangerous

Source: Airplane Flying Handbook, FAA

138
 VMC Demonstration
• Select a visual reference point
• Establish single engine zero-sideslip
• Brief the Maneuver
 “I will pitch up at a rate to realize a decrease of 1 knot per second. At the first indication of a loss of
directional control or a stall, I will reduce power on the operating engine and lower the nose”

• Increase Pitch (& rudder)

• Recover
 First indication of uncontrolled yaw or stall
 Reduce power
 Lower the nose

• Return to original heading & airspeed

139
 Questions?

140
Speeds & Configurations
Demonstration

141
 Overview
Content
• What • Entry Procedure
 First person demonstration of the effects of a
feathered vs un-feathered propeller, as well as • Demonstration
airspeed, flaps, and landing gear on single
engine performance • Recovery

• Why
 Safety, safety, safety
 The pilot understands the effects of drag on
aircraft performance and the importance of
maintaining VYSE

142
 Entry Procedure
• Safe altitude
• Idle power (critical engine)
• Zero-sideslip
• Trim

• VYSE

143
 Demonstration
• Propeller Windmilling
 Full power, VYSE
 + Approach flaps
 + Landing gear
 + Landing flaps

• Feathered Propeller
 Full power, VYSE, Landing flaps
 - Landing flaps
 - Landing gear
 - Approach flaps

144
 Recovery
• Restart critical engine
• Balance power
• Maintain control
• Return to straight-and-level

145
 Questions?

146