Cycle 1

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CYCLE-1

Ex:-1
Identifying the peripherals of the personal
computer
COMPUTER
 Technically, a computer is a programmable machine. This
means it can execute a programmed list of instructions and
respond to new instructions that it is given. If you want to
be really technical, the box that holds the computer is called
the "system unit.“
 Some of the major parts of a personal computer (or PC)
include the motherboard, CPU, memory (or RAM), hard
drive, and video card. Personal computers are the most
common type of computers .
 There are several other types of computers. For example, a
"minicomputer" is a powerful computer that can support
many users at once. A "mainframe" is a large, high-
powered computer that can perform billions of calculations
from multiple sources at one time. Finally, a
"supercomputer" is a machine that can process billions of
instructions a second and is used to calculate extremely
complex calculations.
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A COMPUTER
Functional components of a
computer system
Computer Hardware

A personal computer is made up of multiple physical components


of computer hardware, upon which can be installed an operating
system and a multitude of software to perform the operator's

desired functions .
TERMS
 BIT - A logical data unit which has a possible value of 0 or 1.
 BYTE - A unit of data storage consisting of 8 bits.
 CYCLE - An electrical cycle is basically a sinewave form during which
electrical voltage will cycle from its lowest negative value to its
highest positive value and back again.
 HERTZ - A unit of frequency describing the number of electrical
cycles that occur in a second. One hertz is one cycle per second.
Power is delivered to homes in the United States at 60Hz and in
Europe at 50Hz.
 MEGABYTE(MB) - A unit of data storage consisting of about one
million bytes. This is normally used to refer to the amount of system
memory or floppy disk storage.
 MEGAHERTZ(MHZ) - A unit of frequency. It is one million hertz. It
describes the clock frequency the microprocessor runs at. The larger
the number, generally the faster the microprocessor, but there are
other factors that affect microprocessor speed.
 GIGABYTE(GB) - A unit of data storage consisting of about 1000
megabytes. This is normally used to refer to the amount of capacity
a hard drive has.
COMPUTER CASES

 There are two basic styles of cases the computer may come
assembled in.
 They are basically tower and desktop style cases.
 Desktop style is in the shape of a rectangular box, that sets flat on
a desk. Usually the computer monitor is placed on top of it.
 A tower case, looks similar to a tower as the name says. These
computers will be placed off to the side of the keyboard and
monitor. The tower case is the most popular style of desktop
computer today. It is also recommended by some microprocessor
manufacturers since it can be designed for better heat dissipation.
 Tower cases come in several sizes which are:
1. Mini-tower - The smallest.
2. Mid-tower - The standard size, recommended for most applications
including standard desktop systems and some servers.
3. Full-tower - The largest. Usually this is a very tall case and you may
have a difficult time fitting it where overhead is limited. This case is
usually used for high powered servers.
COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER

  CPU
  RAM
  Motherboard
  Case with Power Supply
Types Of  Drive
 Floppy disk drive
 Hard disk drive
 CD ROM R/W drive
Input Output Devices
 Keyboard & Mouse
 Monitor
 Video card
 Sound Card
Communication Devices
 Internal Modem
 Ethernet card
CPU

 CPU( Central Processing Unit ) also known as


processor. This is the most important cheap computer
part. The CPU is the brain of your computer.
 The fundamental operation of most CPUs, regardless
of the physical form they take, is to execute a
sequence of stored instructions called a program. The
program is represented by a series of numbers that
are kept in some kind of computer memory. There are
four steps that nearly all CPUs use in their operation:
fetch, decode, execute, and writeback.
Fig:CPU BACK VIEW
SMPS
Switching Mode Power Supply

SMPS
Fan

230 V AC
Input
230 V AC
Output
Switched-Mode PowerSupply(SMPS)

 A switched-mode power supply (switching-mode


power supply/SMPS, or simply switcher) is an
electronic power supply unit (PSU) that incorporates a
switching regulator in order to provide the required
output voltage.
 An SMPS is a power converter that transmits power
from a source (e.g., a battery or the electrical power
grid) to a load (e.g., a personal computer). The
function of the converter is to provide a regulated
output voltage usually at a different level than the input
voltage.
 It minimizes wasted energy. Higher efficiency is the
chief advantage of a switch-mode power supply.
 SMPS supplies power to

1.Motherboard(ATX power connector)


2.HDD(4 pin connector)
3.FDD(4 pin connector)
4.CDROM Drive(4 pin connector)
Fig:Block diagram of SMPS
ATX POWER CONNECTOR
 ATX (Advanced Technology xtended) is a computer
form factor designed by Intel in 1995. ATX addressed
many of the AT form factor's annoyances that had
frustrated system builders. Other standards for smaller
boards (including microATX, FlexATX and mini-ITX)
usually keep the basic rear layout but reduce the size of
the board and the number of expansion slot positions.
Red(R) +5V Purple(P) +5V Stand By
Yellow(Y) +12V Blue(Blu) -12V
Orange(O) 3.3V Green(G) Power Supply On
Grey(Gr) Power Good White(W) -5V

ATX Power Connector

O Blu B G B B B W R R
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
O O B R B R B Gr P Y
12V 5V
GND

HDD&CD-ROM Power Connector

Peripheral Power Connector


GND
12V 5V

FLOPPY

Floppy Power Connector


12V

ATX 12V Connector


HARD DISK DRIVE
Hard Drive(s)

Construction
 Hard drives consist of a series of round metal plates called
platters, also called cylinders. They are coated with an
electromagnetic material which can support magnetic states
that are capable of being electrically altered. This means some
type of electrical signal can alter the magnetic polarization of
various areas of the plates. The state of these polarized areas
can also be sensed. Each platter can hold large amounts of
data. There are several platters mounted on a hard drive.
Between each platter is a head which is used to sense and
modify the states of the platter. There are two heads on each
platter.
 Each platter has data stored on it in a specific pattern
for read and write access. The data is organized into
tracks which are rings around the platter. The distance
the head moves into the platter will determine which
track is read. A sector is a section of data in the
cylinder. Different hard drives have different numbers
of sectors, tracks, and platters. The total storage space
on the hard drive is traditionally equal to:
 Sector size times sectors/track times tracks/cylinder
times the number of cylinders.
 With more modern drives, however, to increase storage
space, some drives have more sectors on the outer
tracks than the inner tracks. This is because there is
more physical room for data on the outer tracks.
Therefore this method of calculating hard drive capacity
may not be effective in the future .
 A hard drive is a mass storage device where your
operation system is installed along with many data files.
 There are two types of hard drives with regard to the
controller:
 IDE - Integrated Drive Electronics. A controller based
interface. If your primary concern is low price with
reasonable performance IDE is a good choice. It is still
the most popular controller interface because of price.
 SCSI - SCSI uses a separate bus hooked to the system
bus using a host adapter. It is a more expensive system
than IDE, but is better built and has a great deal of
flexibility. If you are considering running a server or high
performance system, this is the best way to go. There
are several types of SCSI interface, the primary
characteristic being the width of the data transfer (how
many data bits are carried over the cable at a time). The
important item is to be sure you get compatible
controllers with your SCSI device such as your hard drive
or CD-ROM drive.
CHARACTERISTICS OF HARD DRIVES
Most hard drives have three characteristics of main importance for
performance:
 Size - The size of the hard drive is expressed in terms of
Gigabytes which is roughly 1000 Megabytes. It is difficult to
buy a drive less than 4 Gb today. Typical size are 8 through 20
Gb.
 Speed - The data output of a hard drive is primary limited by the
amount of time it takes for the electromagnetic head to reach
the data at specific locations on the drive. The primary factor of
limitation is hard drive rotation speed. Common speeds today
are 5400 RPM (revolutions per minute), 7200 RPM, and 10000
RPM. Considering price and performance, we currently
recommend 7200 RPM hard drives.
 Reliability - The other performance factor that is worth
considering is reliability. This is expressed as mean time
between failure (MTBF) The higher the number, the better. Look
for this specification on the manufacturer's specification sheets
for each product.
FLOPPY DISK DRIVE
FLOPPY DISK DRIVE
 A floppy disk is a data storage medium that is composed
of a disk of thin, flexible ("floppy") magnetic storage
medium encased in a square or rectangular plastic shell.
 Floppy disks are read and written by a floppy disk drive
or FDD, the initials of which should not be confused with
"fixed disk drive", which is another term for a (no
removable) type of hard disk drive. Invented by the
American information technology company IBM, floppy
disks in 8-inch (203 mm), 51⁄4 in (133 mm), and 31⁄2 in
(89 mm) formats enjoyed nearly three decades as a
popular and ubiquitous form of data storage and
exchange, from the mid-1970s to the late 1990s. While
floppy disk drives still have some limited uses, especially
with legacy industrial computer equipment, they have
now been largely superseded by USB flash drives,
external hard disk drives, CDs, DVDs, and memory cards
CD-ROM DRIVE
CD-WRITER
CD-ROM

 The storage capacity of most CD-ROMs is about 650Mb of


data. Originally CD-ROMS were read only devices, but now
read/write technology has been developed.
 Interface
 Many CD-ROMs are interface to the computer using the
ATAPI interface. This is ATA Packet Interface which is a IDE
interface. This is designed for extra drives like CD-ROM's and
tape drives that connect to an ATA connector. The ATAPI
interface is the standard interface for IDE controlled CD-
ROMS. If your CD-ROM uses an a ATAPI interface, it should
be supported by all available software. If you are using a
SCSI controller, you should probably use a SCSI CD-ROM.
There are two primary types of CD-ROMs today.
 Read only
 Read and Write CD-ROM
 These are primarily available as an internally mounted drive,
but can also be purchased as an external device. There are
some CD-ROM drives that interface through the parallel
printer port.
SPEED

 The primary performance concern of CD-ROM drives is their


speed. Speeds are expressed in terms of 1X, 2X, 4X, which
is the number of times the drive is than the standard CD-
ROM reader. Of the read only type, speeds have exceeded
50X. CD-ROMS of up to 40X speeds and beyond can be
purchased today for a reasonably low price.
 The read/write type of CD-ROM speeds are expressed with
three values. They are read, write, and rewrite. Current
speeds of these devices are 32X, 10X, 4X. Currently 32X by
8X by 4X are priced reasonably at around $220. This
compares to a 40X read CD-ROM drive at around $30-40.
Therefore we recommend you do not rely upon your
read/write CD-ROM drive for reading normal CDs especially
where playing games in concerned. You could wear out your
expensive CD-ROM performing read operations which costs
a great deal more than a read only CD-ROM !
OTHER STORAGE DEVICES
 DVD Drive - DVD stands for Digital Video Disk. Most DVD
drives use the ATAPI interface. They are available as
internal or external devices. They can operate at up to 16X
speeds but 8X is more common. They are primarily used for
video storage but they can be used to hold audio and
computer data. DVD is categorized into DVD-Video and DVD-
ROM devices. The DVD-ROM device is for computer data
storage.

 Zip drives - A removable cartridge storage device that may


be used to store compressed data as a data back up method.
A zip drive has between a 100Mb to 2G storage capacity.
Cost is usually between $45 and $350. Some zip drives can
also be used to read standard 3.5 inch floppy diskettes.

 Tape drive backup kits - Their capacity 3G to 40G. The cost


range is from $200 to $1000.
 There are five recordable versions of DVD-ROM. They can
all can read DVD-ROM and DVD-Video discs, but different
type of disc is used by each one for recording.
 DVD-R/authoring - Can record data once.

 DVD-R/general, - Can record data once. The capacity is


3.95 Gb or 4.7 Gb.DVD-RAM - It is not compatible with
current drives. It has a storage capacity of 2.58 Gb It can
be rewritten about 100,000 times The discs are expected to
hold data for 30 years or more.

 DVD-RW - The capacity is 4.7 Gb. It can be rewritten about


1,000 times.

 DVD+RW - It will become available in early 2001.


Fig: MOTHER BOARD
MOTHER BOARD

 A motherboard is the central printed circuit board (PCB) in


many modern computers and holds many of the crucial
components of the system, while providing connectors for
other peripherals.
 The motherboard is sometimes alternatively known as the
main board, system board, or, on Apple computers, the logic
board. It is also sometimes casually shortened to mobo.
 Prior to the advent of the microprocessor, a computer is
usually built in a card-cage case or mainframe with
components connected by a backplane consisting of a set of
slots themselves connected with wires; in very old designs the
wires were discrete connections between card connector pins,
but printed circuit boards soon became the standard practice.
The Central Processing Unit, memory and peripherals were
housed on individual printed circuit boards which plugged into
the backplane.
INTEGRATED PERIPHERLS ON
MOTHERBOARD
COMPONENTS ON MOTHERBOARD
Modern motherboards include, at a minimum:
 sockets (or slots) in which one or more microprocessors may be
installed
 slots into which the system's main memory is to be installed
(typically in the form of DIMM modules containing DRAM chips)
 a chipset which forms an interface between the CPU's front-side
bus, main memory, and peripheral buses
 non-volatile memory chips (usually Flash ROM in modern
motherboards) containing the system's firmware or BIOS
 a clock generator which produces the system clock signal to
synchronize the various components
 slots for expansion cards (these interface to the system via the
buses supported by the chipset)
 power connectors, which receive electrical power from the
computer power supply and distribute it to the CPU, chipset,
main memory, and expansion card
 Additionally, nearly all motherboards include logic and
connectors to support commonly-used input devices,
such as PS/2 connectors for a mouse and keyboard.
Early personal computers such as the Apple II or IBM
PC included only this minimal peripheral support on
the motherboard. Occasionally video interface
hardware was also integrated into the motherboard;
for example, on the Apple II and rarely on IBM-
compatible computers such as the IBM PC Jr.
Additional peripherals such as disk controllers and
serial ports were provided as expansion cards.
 Given the high thermal design power of high-speed
computer CPUs and components, modern
motherboards nearly always include heat sinks and
mounting points for fans to dissipate excess heat.
CPU SOCKET
CPU sockets

 A CPU socket or slot is an electrical component that


attaches to a printed circuit board (PCB) and is designed to
house a CPU (also called a microprocessor). It is a special
type of integrated circuit socket designed for very high pin
counts.
 A CPU socket provides many functions, including a physical
structure to support the CPU, support for a heat sink,
facilitating replacement (as well as reducing cost), and most
importantly, forming an electrical interface both with the
CPU and the PCB.
 CPU sockets can most often be found in most desktop and
server computers (laptops typically use surface mount
CPUs), particularly those based on the Intel
x86 architecture on the motherboard.
 A CPU socket type and motherboard chipset must support
the CPU series and speed..
The Memory Slots
 The motherboard is the mother of all boards on your
computer. The motherboard may have a form factor of AT or
ATX. We recommend you use ATX motherboards with ATX
cases since this is the newer alternative and most modern
microprocessors run on ATX motherboards. The motherboard
holds the microprocessor, the memory, and several card
slots. The memory may be SIMM sockets or DIMM sockets.
The current standard is DIMM socketed memory. This is
usually 168 pin 3 volt unbuffered synchronous DRAM
memory. PC100 or PC133 memory is the current memory of
choice. Most boards have 3 or 4 memory slots, which may,
depending on the size of DIMM used, allow up or beyond 1 Gb
total system memory. Most boards commonly allow 384 to
512 Mb of system RAM.
The Expansion Bus
•The expansion bus is a means of a microprocessor
extending its communication ability further into the
outside world. It is a data exchange means between add
on cards and the microprocessor and the motherboard.
• The card slots are used to put additional cards such as
video cards, sound cards, internal modems, or network
cards into.
•Some motherboards today include video and sound
without the addition of a extra card. These cards slots
today are mostly PCI type card slots.
There have been several types of expansion buses

 ISA - Industry Standard Architecture. Used when the original


8088 8bit microprocessor based personal computers were
produced.
 EISA - Extended ISA used when the 80286 through 80486 series
microprocessors were being produced. This bus is still used but is
being phased out and is almost gone today.
 MCI - Micro channel architecture by IBM and used mainly on IBM
brand computers.
 PCI - Peripheral Component Interconnect. The popular expansion
bus of choice. It is significantly faster than EISA.
 AGP - Accelerated Graphics Port. This bus is developed for fast
video cards. It is currently up to 4X mode speed.
 The current popular expansion bus is the PCI (Peripheral
Component Interconnect) bus for all cards except the graphics
cards. For graphics cards, the bus of choice is AGP. Most
motherboards today have one AGP slot and several PCI slots.
OTHER MOTHERBOARD ITEMS

Other items on your motherboard that you should be aware of are


the small pin connectors that are used to connect the following
controls and indicatory to your motherboard.
 Power supply switch.
 Reset switch
 The power on indicator.
 Hard drive activity indicator.
 In the case speaker connector.
CHIPSET AND BIOS

 One issue that will affect the operation of the motherboard is the chipset it
uses and its BIOS it uses. The chipset is used to control the interface
between the microprocessor and most of the devices and memory on the
computer. The chipset used can have a significant affect on the
performance of your system as can the overall design of the motherboard.
The way to determine the best chipsets and motherboards is to read
reviews and articles at various technical websites.
 Your system's BIOS is a computer program that allows your system to
begin running and provides a small library fo function that your system will
use to interface to various devices such as your hard drive. Some BIOS
programs can limit the location on your hard drive where you can install
bootable operating systems. The BIOS resides in a chip on the motherboard
called a ROM chip. Usually part of this ROM can be reset or re programmed
with updates. ROM that can be electrically re-written this way is called
"flash" ROM.
MICROPROCESSOR

 The microprocessor is the center of your computer. It processes instructions


and communicates with outside devices, controlling most of the operation of
the computer. The microprocessor usually has a large heat sink attached to
it. Some microprocessors come in a package with a heat sink and a fan
included as a part of the package. Other microprocessors require you to
install the heat sink and fan separately. This is not a difficult problem, but
can be a bit daunting when the buyer wants to make sure they get the
correct parts to fit their microprocessor. Also the buyer needs to make sure
they will get the motherboard that their microprocessor will work with.
MICROPROCESSOR HEAT SINKS
AND FANS.

 What is a fan and heat sink?


A heat sink is a piece of metal that sits on top of your computers CPU (and
also some other components) that helps conduct heat away from it, the fan
you're referring to sits on top of the heat sink...
NORTH BRIDGE
NORTH BRIDGE
 The Northbridge, also known as a memory controller hub (MCH) or an
integrated memory controller (IMC) in Intel systems (AMD, VIA, SiS
and others usually use 'Northbridge'), is one of the two chips in the core
logic chipset on a PC motherboard, the other being the Southbridge.
 Separating the chipset into the Northbridge and Southbridge is common,
although there are rare instances where these two chips have been
combined onto one die when design complexity and fabrication processes
permit it.

 The Northbridge typically handles communications among the CPU,


RAM, BIOS ROM, and PCI Express (or AGP) video cards, and the
Southbridge. Some northbridges also contain integrated video
controllers, also known as a Graphics and Memory Controller
Hub (GMCH) in Intel systems. Because different processors and
RAM require different signaling, a Northbridge will typically work
with only one or two classes of CPUs and generally only one type
of RAM.
 SOUTH BRIDGE
SOUTH BRIDGE
 The Southbridge, also known as an I/O controller hub
(ICH) in Intel systems (AMD, VIA, SiS and others usually use
'Southbridge'), is a chip that implements the "slower"
capabilities of the motherboard in a northbridge/southbridge
chipset computer architecture.
 The Southbridge can usually be distinguished from the
Northbridge by not being directly connected to the CPU.
Rather, the Northbridge ties the Southbridge to the CPU.
Through the use of controller integrated channel circuitry, the
Northbridge can directly link signals from the I/O units to the
CPU for data control and access.

 Because the Southbridge is further removed from the CPU, it is


given responsibility for the slower devices on a typical
microcomputer. A particular Southbridge will usually work with
several different north bridges, but these two chips must be
designed to work together; Traditionally the interface between
Northbridge and Southbridge was simply the PCI bus
CMOS
CMOS
 complementary metal oxide semiconductor.
Pronounced see-moss, CMOS is a widely used type of
semiconductor. CMOS semiconductors
 use both NMOS (negative polarity) and PMOS
(positive polarity) circuits. Since only one of the
circuit types is on at any given time, CMOS
 chips require less power than chips using just one
type of transistor. This makes them particularly
attractive for use in battery-powered devices, such as
portable computers. Personal computers also contain
a small amount of battery-powered CMOS memory to
hold the date, time, and system setup parameters.
 All computers that have an processor require a small
battery on the system board that provides power to the
Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) chip,
even while the computer is turned off.
 This chip contains information about the system
configuration/BIOS Settings (e.g., hard disk type, floppy
drive types, date and time, and the order in which the
computer will look for bootable disks). All AT, ATX, or later
computers have a CMOS battery that allows the CMOS to
preserve these settings. The settings for the BIOS are
stored in special memory called CMOS.
 A battery backs up the CMOS, so the computer's essential
settings are retained when the computer is turned off.
When that battery runs out of juice, however, the CMOS
forgets the proper settings, and things stop working
properly.
 A typical CMOS battery should last for years, perhaps even
a decade, but numerous factors can reduce that time.
RAM SLOTS
Fig:DDR-RAM
Fig: SD-RAM
RAM

Random Access Memory


 RAM is the fast access storage area of any computer. The
RAM holds the information of computer that needs to run.
It is the information which CPU requires to execute the
program. The more RAM helps CPU to process more data
effectively. The more RAM you have, the faster and more
things your cheapest computer can do at once. Your
computer speed depends on this computer part. Especially
gamers should not neglect this cheap computer part. For
gaming applciation, go for minimum 512 MB RAM.
TYPES OF RAM
 DDRAM
 SD-RAM.
EX:Celeron CPU ( socket 370 Computer motherboard )
requires SD RAM. Pentium 4 CPU ( socket 478 Computer
motherboard ) requires DDR SDRAM or RD RAM.
Bootstrapping using the BIOS

Booting:
 Motherboards contain some non-volatile memory to initialize the system
and load an operating system from some external peripheral device.
Microcomputers such as the Apple II and IBM PC used ROM chips, mounted
in sockets on the motherboard. At power-up, the central processor would
load its program counter with the address of the boot ROM and start
executing ROM instructions, displaying system information on the screen
and running memory checks, which would in turn start loading memory
from an external or peripheral device (disk drive). If none is available, then
the computer can perform tasks from other memory stores or display an
error message, depending on the model and design of the computer and
version of the BIOS.
 Most modern motherboard designs use a BIOS, stored in an EEPROM chip
soldered to the motherboard, to bootstrap the motherboard. (Socketed
BIOS chips are widely used, also.)
 By booting the motherboard, the memory, circuitry, and
peripherals are tested and configured. This process is
known as a computer Power-On Self Test (POST) and may
include testing some of the following devices:
 floppy drive
 network controller
 CD-ROM drive
 DVD-ROM drive
 SCSI hard drive
 IDE, EIDE, or SATA hard disk
 External USB memory storage device
Any of the above devices can be stored with machine code
instructions to load an operating system or program.
BIOS ROM
 Basic Input/Output System Computer program that is typically stored in EPROM and
used by the CPU to perform start-up procedures when the computer is turned on. Its
two major procedures are determining what peripheral devices (keyboard, mouse, disk
drives, printers, video cards, etc.) are available and loading the operating system (OS)
into main memory. After start-up, the BIOS program manages data flow between the
OS and the peripherals, so neither the OS nor the application programs need to know
the details of the peripherals (such as hardware addresses).
 (Basic Input Output System) An essential set of routines that sets up the
hardware in a PC and boots the operating system. Prior to loading the
operating system, the BIOS provides basic software drivers for all peripheral
technologies that are part of the PC's motherboard, including the keyboard,
mouse, monitor and hard disk. The drivers enable the user to edit
configuration settings and allow the hardware to access the hard disk,
optical disc or floppy disk to obtain the operating system.
After the operating system is loaded, more elaborate drivers are typically
loaded, which replace the BIOS routines used to boot the system. The BIOS
also supports internal services such as the real-time clock (time and date).

The BIOS Sets Up the Computer
On startup, the BIOS tests the system and prepares the computer for
operation based on the installed hardware and the configuration settings from
the manufacturer and user. For example, it initializes memory and caches and
assigns resources to all devices connected to the PCI bus. The BIOS searches
for BIOS extensions (option ROMs) on plug-in cards and sets up pointers
(interrupt vectors) in main memory to access those routines. It then loads the
operating system and passes control to it.

 A BIOS Can Get Out-Of-Date


The BIOS used to be stored on a ROM chip (the ROM BIOS), which
had to be replaced in order to be upgraded. Later, the BIOS was
stored on a flash memory chip. In the early days of PCs, the addition
of a larger disk drive or new type of peripheral sometimes required a
BIOS change. It is less common today, but if a BIOS change is
necessary, a flash memory BIOS can be upgraded in place with a
software update. See BIOS upgrades, BIOS setup, beep codes and
UEFI.
BIOS
BIOS SETTINGS
AGP
AGP
 The Accelerated Graphics Port (often shortened to AGP) is a
high-speed point-to-point channel for attaching a video card to a
computer's motherboard, primarily to assist in the acceleration of
3D computer graphics. Since 2004, AGP has been progressively
phased out in favor of PCI Express. As of mid-2009, PCIe cards
dominate the market, but new AGP cards and motherboards are still
available for purchase, though OEM driver support is minimal.
 There are some proprietary exceptions to this rule. For example,
Apple Power Macintosh computers with the Apple Display Connector
(ADC) have an extra connector which delivers power to the
attached display. Additionally, moving cards between computers of
various CPU architectures may not work due to firmware issues

 Various manufacturers of graphics cards continue to produce AGP cards for


the shrinking AGP user-base. The first bridged cards were the GeForce 6600
and ATI Radeon X800 XL boards, released during 2004-5. As of 2009, AGP
cards from NVIDIA have a ceiling of the GeForce 7 Series. As of 2009,
DirectX 10-capable AGP cards from ATI include the Radeon HD 2400, 2600,
3650, and 3850 and the Radeon HD 4650, 4670
PCI Slots

Mother Board
PCI Slots
PCI
 PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) A high-
performance (by current standards) computer
expansion slot designed by Intel. PCI allows for 32- or
64-bit bus specification. PCI is described as high-
bandwidth and processor-independent data path
between the CPU and high-speed peripherals.
 The PCI spec allows for the capability to transfer up to
132 megabytes per second at a bus clock speed of 33
MHz (although the current rates being claimed by
manufacturers are more commonly in the 30 Mb/sec
range).
 This speed makes it especially suitable for high data
rate applications like digital audio and video.
 PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) is an industry
specification for connecting hardware devices to a
computer's central processor. Both Ethernet and Wi-Fi
network adapters for desktop and notebook computers
commonly utilize PCI. PCI defines the electrical
characteristics and signal protocol used for two devices
to communicate over a computer's central bus. PCI
network adapters and other devices exist in several
different shapes and sizes called "form factors."
 Besides traditional Ethernet PCI cards that
manufacturers pre-install inside desktop computers,
common PCI form factors for consumer network devices
are:
 Card Bus - either Wi-Fi or Ethernet PC Card (also known
as PCMCIA or "credit card") network adapters
 Mini PCI - Wi-Fi network cards embedded inside notebook
computers
SOUND CARD
WI-FI CARD
 A wireless network interface controller (WNIC) is a network card which
connects to a radio-based computer network, unlike a regular network
interface controller (NIC) which connects to a wire-based network such as
token ring or Ethernet. A WNIC, just like a NIC, works on the Layer 1 and
Layer 2 of the OSI Model. A WNIC is an essential component for wireless
desktop computer. This card uses an antenna to communicate through
microwaves. A WNIC in a desktop computer usually is connected using the
PCI bus. Other connectivity options are USB and PC card. Integrated WNICs
are also available, (typically in Mini PCI/PCI Express Mini Card form).
CNR Slot

Communications and Networking Raiser


CNR
 Communications and Networking Riser (CNR) is a slot found on certain
PC motherboards and used for specialized networking, audio, and telephony
equipment. A motherboard manufacturer can choose to provide audio,
networking, or modem functionality in any combination on a CNR card. CNR
slots were once commonly found on Pentium 4-class motherboards, but
have since been phased out in favor of on-board or embedded components.
IDE CABLES
IDE Cables
Floppy Drive Cable HDD/CD-ROM-IDE
Cables
IDE Cables speed
40 80
Conductor Conductor
Cable Cable
Low Speed High Speed
IDE CABLES
 IDE stands for Integrated Device, (or Drive), Electronics. EIDE
is a later standard of IDE. It stands for Enhanced Integrated
Device, (or Drive), Electronics. EIDE is three to four times faster
than the older IDE standard.
 The picture above shows how to connect an IDE cable to two
drives. Using jumpers that are normally located on the back of a
drive, the top drive should be made the "master" and the
bottom drive should be made the "slave." The master drive is
the primary drive.
 It is normally located at the end of a two connection IDE cable.
The slave, or secondary drive, is connected to the IDE cable
between the master drive and the motherboard IDE connection.
Since data can not go to and from each drive at the same time,
it is necessary to make one drive the master and the other drive
the slave. IDE cables consist of either 40 individual wires or 80
individual wires. Ultra ATA/66 or later devices need the 80 wire
cables to operate efficiently. Most of these wires are used to
transfer data between the motherboard and the drives.
Parallel ATA
 Parallel ATA (PATA) is an interface standard for the
connection of storage devices such as hard disks, solid-state
drives, floppy drives, and CD-ROM drives in computers. The
standard is maintained by X3/INCITS committee. It uses the
underlying AT Attachment (ATA) and AT Attachment
Packet Interface (ATAPI) standards.
 The current Parallel ATA standard is the result of a long
history of incremental technical development. ATA/ATAPI is
an evolution of the AT Attachment Interface, which was itself
evolved in several stages from Western Digital's original
Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) interface. As a result,
many near-synonyms for ATA/ATAPI and its previous
incarnations exist, including abbreviations such as IDE which
are still in common informal use. After the market
introduction of Serial ATA in 2003, the original ATA was
retroactively renamed Parallel ATA.
 Parallel ATA only allows cable lengths up to 18 in (457 mm).
Because of this length limit the technology normally appears
as an internal computer storage interface. For many years
ATA provided the most common and the least expensive
interface for this application. By the beginning of 2007, it had
largely been replaced by Serial ATA (SATA) in new systems
Fig:ATA connector AND two motherboard
ATA connectors.
PORTS
PORTS
Computer port (hardware)

 In computer hardware, a 'port' serves as an interface between the computer


and other computers or peripheral devices. Physically, a port is a specialized
outlet on a piece of equipment to which a plug or cable connects.
Electronically, the several conductors making up the outlet provide a signal
transfer between devices.
 The term 'port' is derived from a latin word 'porta' (gate, entrance, door)

Computer port (software)


 A software port (usually just called a 'port') is a virtual/logical data
connection that can be used by programs to exchange data directly,
instead of going through a file or other temporary storage location.
The most common of these are TCP and UDP ports, which are used
to exchange data between computers on the Internet.
 In Flow-based programming, a 'port' is a (named) point of contact
between a process and a connection..
DIFFERENT SCREWS USED

Outer Inner Mother Board


EXPERIMENT 2

ASSEMBLING AND DISSEMBLING OF A


PC
DISSEMBLING OF A COMPUTER
Removing the Cover
 The standard way of removing tower cases used to be to undo 4-6 screws on the back of the case,
slide the cover back about an inch and lift it off. Manufacturers are beginning to come up with
trickier and more intricate methods of assembling these cases all the time. If there is no manual,
then a little time taken for careful inspection may be in order. Here are some things to remember:
 Don't Force Anything. If it has to be forced, it will probably break. If there are no screws on the
back of the case for the cover, check the plastic faceplate on the front. Some pry off to reveal
screws or release levers (remember, careful inspection). If everything on the front has its own
bezel around it (including the LEDs) then maybe the plastic front pops off (or maybe the case
slides off the front).
 If you notice a separation between the sides and the top, then they must come off separately. My
favorite ATX case allows you to remove two screws from the back, then slide the side panel to the
rear an inch and remove it. The other side removes the same way. It's a good, solid, well built
case.
 Make sure any screws removed are for the cover. You don't want to unscrew the power supply by
accident and have it fall inside your computer. That's a bad thing.
 After the case is removed, place it in a safe place, where it won't get knocked of a table, kicked or
stepped on and bent.
Removing Adapter Cards
 Again, documentation is very important. Yes, that 16-bit ISA card will probably work in
any 16-bit ISA slot, but there may be a reason it's in that particular one. Document
the type of card and which slot it comes from.
 Check the card for any cables or wires that might be attached and decide if it would be
easier to remove them before or after you remove the card.
 Undo the screw that holds the card in place.
 Grab the card by its edges, front and back, and gently rock it lengthwise to release it.
Do not wiggle it side to side as you can break the card, the slot, or the solder.
Sometimes it helps to grasp the inside corner of the card with one hand and place a
finger from the other hand under the associated port out the back of the computer to
pry up the one end of the card.
 Once the card is removed, you may want to record any jumper settings you see, just
in case one is accidentally dislodged. Try to store the card in an antistatic bag. If you
don't plan on replacing the card then a cover should be installed over the slot opening.
Removing Drives

 Removing drives is not that difficult. They usually have a power connector and a data cable attached from the
device to a controller card or a connector on the motherboard. CD-ROMs may have an analog cable connected to
the sound card.

 The power will be attached using one of two connectors, a large Molex connector or a smaller Berg connector
for the floppy drive. The Molex connector may need to be wiggled slightly from side to side while applying
gentle pressure outwards. The Berg connector may just pull straight out or it may have a small tab that has to be
lifted with a tiny flat screwdriver.
 The data cables need to be documented. Remember the pin one rule. Know where each one goes before you pull
it out and record its orientation (which side is the stripe on, where is pin 1?). Pull data cables gently and
carefully. In other words, don't yank them off, and pull level and in the direction of the pins.
 Now you need to do a little more inspection, can the entire drive bay be removed? Does that particular drive
come out the back of the bay or does it slide out the front before the bay is removed. If a bay is removable, you
may have to remove some screws or unclip a lever then slide the bay back and off. If the bay is not removable,
there should be access ports on the other side of the case that allow for access to those screws (there should be,
I've seen some that you just about have to remove the motherboard to access these screws). Now you can remove
the screws and slide the drive out the back of the bay. If the drive slides out the front of the case, then remove
the screws and gently slide it forward.
Removing the Memory Modules

 Memory modules are one of the chips that can be damaged by as little as 30
volts. Be careful of ESD and handle them only by the edges. SIMMs and DIMMs
are removed differently:
 SIMM - gently push back the metal tabs holding the SIMM in the socket. Tilt the
SIMM away from the tabs to about a 45% angle. It should now lift out. Put
each SIMM in its own protective bag.
 DIMM- There are plastic tabs on the end of the DIMM socket. Push the tabs
down and away from the socket. The DIMM should lift slightly. Now you can
grab it by the edges and place it in a separate antistatic bag.
Removing the Power Supply
 Make sure it's unplugged.
 All power connectors should be removed, including the connection to the motherboard and
any auxiliary fans. Watch the little plastic tabs on ATX connectors (you'ld rather not break
them). AT power supplies have a two piece power connector that may be labeled P-8 and
P-9. Make note of the orientation. The black wires should be in the middle, black to black.
 Remove the connection to the remote power switch at the front of the case. Orientation of
the colored wires at this switch is critical. If you remove them, make sure you document
well, and during re-assembly plug the computer into a fused surge protector before
turning it on (this could save your motherboard and components from melting if you've
reconnected improperly). If you're putting the same power supply back, it's better to
remove the entire switch and leave the connectors entact. The remote switch on an ATX
form factor attaches to the motherboard.
 Remove the four screws at the back of the case and gently slide the power supply out of
the case. While removing these screws, hold onto the power supply. You don't want it
falling into the case
Removing the Motherboard
 Document and remove all wire attachments to the motherboard. (Some of these
have Pin 1 designations also.)
 Most cases have a removable panel that the motherboard is attached to. By
removing a couple of screws the panel can be taken off and you can gain much
better access to the motherboard. Again, a little investigation can save a lot of
trouble.
 There is usually 2 or 3 screws holding down newer motherboards. Make sure you've
got the right ones and remove them.
 Motherboards sit on plastic or brass standoffs that keep the traces and solder from
touching the metal case and grounding out. Once the screws are removed you can
lift the motherboard out. In other cases, the motherboard has to be slid horizontally
towards the bottom of the case to unclip the plastic standoffs and then lifted out.
 Place the motherboard in an antistatic bag.
Assembling the Computer
The Power Supply

A fairly basic installation, just lineup the holes and screw it on.
Don't plug it in yet. Remember, the cable going to the remote
switch on the front of the case carries 110 volts AC. If you took
the wires off the switch, make sure you connect them just as
they were before (I hope you documented). A wrong connection
here can burn up your PC. After your power supply is installed,
do not plug it in, you may not be able to tell if the switch is on or
off and you don't want to turn the power supply on without a
load.
The RAM

DIP memory modules are the hardest to install. Luckily, it's not done
much anymore. SIMMs are inserted at about a 45 degree angle then
stoand up until they clip into place. If they don't clip in properly, maybe
you have them in backwards. They'll usually have a key cut into one
side. DIMMs are keyed on the edge connector side, they can only be
inserted one way. Once they are lined up, push them down until the
locking tabs on the side come up. You may have to support the
motherboard from underneath if it looks as though its going to flex too
much. COAST modules are also keyed on the bottom and insert much

like an adapter card (Coast On A STick memory is cache SRAM).


The CPU

 CPU sockets aren't friction fit anymore. If you have a PGA Central
Processor (Pentium MMX or Celeron, Cyrix or AMD), it will fit into a ZIFF
(zero insertion force) socket. Pin#1 on the chip has to be lined up with
pin#1 on the socket. This can be indicated on the socket with an arrow,
a #1 silk-screened on the board, or a flattened corner. Usually the CPU
will indicate pin#1 with a flattened corner (and, or a dot on top, and, or
an arrow on the bottom center of the chip).
 Unclip and lift the handle, insert the chip, lower the handle and clip it in.
If it's a Pentium II or a Pentium III, it will fit into a Slot 1 socket. These
are rectangular in shape and have 242 pins in two rows. They're keyed,
and the cartridge should only fit in one way.
The Motherboard

 Most PC cases will allow you to remove the metal tray that the motherboard attaches to by
removing 2 or more screws. If you didn't do that during disassembly then you should
familiarize yourself with it now. The plastic standoffs on the motherboard are to keep the
solder-side of the board from touching the metal case and shorting out. Usually, it's better to
install the RAM and CPU first to avoid the possibility of flexing the board and cracking solder
connections or traces. Orient the motherboard properly and either clip in, or slide in the
standoffs until the mounting screw holes line up. Insert the screws that hold the board in
place.
 The screws need to be snug, but do not twist them into the motherboard. You may be able to
connect the power to the system board as you install the tray. A power supply with a baby-AT
form factor will have two motherboard connectors (P8 and P9). These connectors are keyed
but can be reversed. Make sure the black wires on the two connectors are beside each other.
Clip the keyed edge in at an angle, then straighten the connector up and slide it on. ATX
power connectors slide in until the tab clicks. Once the motherboard and tray are secured in
place, you can re-install the wires for the front of the case (refer to your documentation).
 At this point, you can install the video card. Do a final check on everything installed.
Re-check all installations and connections, attach and plug in the monitor. Turn the
computer on. Watch for lights on the front panel. How far does the BIOS POST
routine get? Are there any error messages? Is this expected
 Once you've installed the power supply, motherboard, CPU and RAM, install the
video card, hook up the keyboard and cables and start your computer. Of course,
there's no drives installed and some expansion cards are missing, so you're going to
get errors.

 But if it recognizes your video card, counts the memory and allows access to you
CMOS setup program, then you know everything installed to that point is working.
Now, turn your computer on after installing each new device. If you get an

unexpected error, then it should be due to the last device you installed .
 VIDEO

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