1.

1 Introduction
 Geodesy:
Aims to determine the size and shape of the Earth globally as
well as its intrinsic/native gravity field, also generated by
other celestial bodies, and the International Reference
Ellipsoid as global reference frame.
Classifications of Geodesy
According to the spatial–temporal attributes of the Earth
that are being studied,
geodesy can be classified into
geometric geodesy,
physical geodesy,
Dynamic geodesy,
and integrated geodesy.
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 Geometric geodesy
 to study the shape and size of the Earth. It projects the
terrestrial geodetic control network onto the regular
reference ellipsoid as the basis for calculating the
geometric positions of surface points.
Physical geodesy
is study or concerned with the external gravity field of the Earth
globally or regionally. It establishes the theory of the Earth’s shape by
physical methods and deals with the geoidal undulation relative to the
Earth ellipsoid using measured data of gravity.
Dynamic geodesy
studies the regional and global movement of the Earth and makes
physical interpretations by accurately measuring the time-varying
positions of surface points and the gravity field of the Earth
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 Integrated geodesy
combines geometric and physical space and deals with all
geometric and physical observed quantities of geodesy in a
uniform mathematical model within the spatial–temporal
reference system.

According to the technical means of carrying out the

fundamental tasks, geodesy can be divided into terrestrial
geodesy (conventional geodesy, i.e., astro-geodesy),
space geodesy (satellite geodesy).

 read about terrestrial geodesy ,space geodesy and

inertial geodesy
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Physical Geodesy:
Utilizes measurements & characteristics of
the earth gravity field as well as theories
regarding this field to reduce the shape of the
geoid and in combinations with arc
measurements and the earth size.
With sufficient information regarding the
earth gravity field its possible to determine
geoid undulations, gravimetric deflections and
the earths flattening.
Geodesy uses gravity to define the geoid
Geophysics uses gravity variations, known as
anomalies, to learn about density variations in
the interior of the earth to interpret figure in the
ground 4
 Cont…
Gravity Anomalies
Gravity measurements provide values for the acceleration of
gravity at points located on the physical surface of the earth.
Before these measurements can be used for most geodetic
purposes, it must be converted into gravity anomalies.
The gravity anomaly is the difference of the measured gravity
acceleration, "reduced to the geoid", and the theoretical
gravity on the ellipsoid,

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 1.2 The Gravity Field of the Earth
The external gravity field plays a fundamental role in geodesy. This is
because the figure of the earth has evolved under the influence of
gravity, and most geodetic observations refer to gravity.
Modeling of the observations thus requires knowledge of the gravity
field. In addition, the analysis of the gravity field yields information on
the structure of the earth's interior.
What we call "gravity" in geodesy is the sum of the Newtonian
gravitational attraction and rotational effects. The rotation effect is
called centrifugal acceleration. All things co-rotating with the earth feel
it. This causes the earth to have a bulge at the equator.

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 Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation

r m2

m1

There is a force of gravity between any pair of objects

anywhere. The force is proportional to each mass and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
the two objects. Its equation is:
G m 1 m2
FG = r2
The constant of proportionality is G, the universal gravitation
constant. G = 6.67259 x 10-11m3kg-1s-2 Note how the units of G
all cancel out except for the Newtons, which is the unit needed on
the left side of the equation. 7
 Gravity Example
How hard do two planets pull on each other if their masses are
1.23  1026 kg and 5.21  1022 kg and they 230 million kilometers
apart?
G m1 m2
FG = r 2
(6.67 · 10-11 m3 / kg-1.s-2)(1.23 · 1026 kg) (5.21 · 1022 kg)
=
(230 · 103 · 106 m) 2
= 8.08 · 1015 N

This is the force each planet exerts on the other. Note the
denominator is has a factor of 103 to convert to meters and a factor of
106 to account for the million. It doesn’t matter which way or how
fast the planets are moving.
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 3rd Law: Action-Reaction
In the last example the force on each planet is the same. This is due to
Newton’s third law of motion: the force on Planet 1 due to Planet 2 is
just as strong but in the opposite direction as the force on Planet 2 due
to Planet 1. The effects of these forces are not the same, however,
since the planets have different masses.
For the big planet: a = (8.08 · 1015 N) / (1.23 · 1026 kg)
= 6.57 · 10-11 m/s2.

For the little planet: a = (8.08 · 1015 N) / (5.21 · 1022 kg)

= 1.55 · 10-7 m/s2.

5.21 8.08 · 1015 N 8.08 · 1015 N

1.23 · 1026 kg
· 1022 kg
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 Inverse Square Law
The law of gravitation is called an inverse square law because the
magnitude of the force is inversely proportional to the square of the
separation. If the masses are moved twice as far apart, the force of
gravity between is cut by a factor of four. Triple the separation and
the force is nine times weaker.

G m1 m2
FG = r2

What if each mass and the separation were all quadrupled?

answer: no change in the force

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 Cont…
The magnitude of the force of gravity is not the same
everywhere on the surface of the earth; namely, it is a
function of position. The gravity force on the neighborhood
of the poles is greater than it is on the equator.
G M m2
F = mg = FG = r2

g = GM/r2
In this case use radius of the earth and mass of the earth.
a=6378137m ,b = 6356752m ,mass of the earth (Me) =
5.972*1024 Kg, and G=6.67259 x 10-
m kg-1s-2
11 3

Calculate g at pole and at equator?

g at pole = _______________ , g at equator = ______________

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 1.3 Components of the gravity field
A body rotating with the earth is subjected to
the gravitational force due to the mass of the
earth and the centrifugal force due to the earth's
rotation. The sum of the gravitational and the
centrifugal forces is called the force of gravity.
The magnitude of the force of gravity is not
the same everywhere on the surface of the
earth;
namely, it is a function of position. The
gravity force on the neighborhood of the poles
is greater than it is on the equator. 12
 Cont …

Gravity is the resultant of gravitational force and

centrifugal force.

13
 Cont…
What Happens If We Spin The Ball Too
Fast? Arrow A Shows The Direction In
Which Centripetal Force Acts. As Long As
A Centrifugal Force (Arrow B) Is Equal To
The Centripetal Force, Everything Is Fine
(In Equilibrium). But If
The Centrifugal Force Becomes Greater
Than The Centripetal Force, The String
Will Break! 

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 Geoid
The geoid is the equipotential surface of the Earth’s gravity
field that is closely approximated by the mean sea level,
i.e. the surface of the sea in the absence of other
influences such as winds and tides and so on. As
an equipotential surface of the Earth’s gravity field, the
geoid has important implications in engineering for the
definition of physical heights and for Earth system studies.
The most precise technique for determining physical heights
above sea level is the classical levelling, but this method is
very time consuming and expensive. Today, GNSS-levelling
provides a very efficient technology to obtain ellipsoidal
heights, from which physical heights can be computed.
However, an indispensable requirement for the application
of this new methodology is the precise knowledge of the
geoid. This underlines the importance of the geoid also for
a broad spectrum of surveying and engineering
tasks based on the availability of physical heights.
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 1.4 Level Surfaces and Plumb Lines

V is the differential (ie the slope) of V in the direction

of most rapid change.
level surface
This property makes V at right angles to a suface on = ‘horizontal’
= equipotential
which the potential V is a constant – an equipotential
surface

There can be therefore, no component of gravitational V = constant

force that is tangential to an equipotential surface

– an equipotential surface is level g  V

Provided that there are no other forces acting, the surface

of a fluid at rest will be level

We also use the word horizontal to describe a level

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surface
 horizontal is bumpy

go - background gravity of the bulk Earth

plus g - effect of local high density mass

g

go

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 horizontal is bumpy

go - background gravity of the bulk Earth

plus g - effect of local high density mass
= g – the resultant net gravity is deflected

g

g go

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 horizontal is bumpy

‘Vertical’ is the direction of net gravity

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 horizontal is bumpy

‘Vertical’ is the direction of net gravity

‘Horizontal’ is a surface at right angles to vertical

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 horizontal is bumpy

There is a family of ‘horizontal’ surfaces,

each defined by its potential energy W

W2

W1

W0

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 horizontal is bumpy

We chose one such surface

- the geoid -
to be zero height

W2

W1

W0 = 0
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 horizontal is bumpy
Gravity is the rate of change of potential with height
gP  (W2-W0) /zP gQ  (W2-W0) /zQ

HP  HQ

P Q
W2 zQ

zP
W1

W0 = 0
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 horizontal is bumpy

On the ‘horizontal’,
‘horizontal’ a marble does not roll away
because there is
no component of gravity parallel to the surface
– no where on it is ‘down hill ’.

the surface of a fluid at rest will be horizontal

geoid

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 The level surfaces
inside the earth and
in the exterior space
are closed spheroidal
surfaces.
 The geoid is the level
surface that
approximates mean
sea level.

 As a consequence of the gravity increase of 0.05 m/s2 from the

equator to the poles, the level surfaces of the earth converge toward
the poles by 0.05m/s2/9.8 m/s2, or 5xl0-3, in a relative sense
 Consequently, two level surfaces that are 100.0 m apart at25 the
equator are separated by only 99.5 m at the poles.
We have seen that the effect of measuring gravity on a rotating Earth is to
add another ‘inertial’ force – the centrifugal force – whose effects are
indistinguishable from ‘gravitational’ force.
Like gravity, the centrifugal force can be derived as the gradient of a
potential, F, so the net potential W is the sum of both components.
W is called the geopotential
W = V + F
and, what we observe as gravity, is
W

|g| = | W|  H

H is an increment of distance along the normal to the equipotential surface

W
so H  
|g| W = W2
H12
Level surfaces are closer together when
gravity is stronger, even though each has W = W1
a constant ‘height’ 26
1.5 Temporal Variations of the Gravity Field.
Gravity changes with time may be divided into effects due
to a time dependent gravitational constant and variations of the
earth's rotation tidal accelerations and variations caused by
terrestrial mass displacements.
These changes are of global, regional, or local character and
occur either at well-known frequencies (tides).
1.5.1 Gravitational Constant, Earth Rotation
Based on cosmological considerations, DlRAC (1938)
postulated a secular decrease of the gravitational constant G,
with relative changes of G/G = -l0-10 to -10-11 (G = dG/dt).
Even to this day, laboratory experiments and the analysis of
long-term observations to artificial satellites and the moon
have not supported the assumption G ≠ 0
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 Cont …
The earth's rotational vector ω is subject to secular, periodic,
and irregular variations, leading to changes of the centrifugal
acceleration z.
1.5.2 Tidal Acceleration, Tidal Potential
Tidal acceleration is caused by the superposition of lunisolar
gravitation (and to a far lesser extent planetary gravitation)
and orbital accelerations due to the motion of the earth around
the barycenter of the respective two-body system (earth-moon,
earth-sun etc.)
The periods of these orbital are about 28 days for the moon
and 365 days for the sun, and the gravimetric tidal effect is on
the order of 10~ -7 g.

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 Cont…
For a rigid earth, the tidal acceleration at a given point can be
determined from Newton's law of gravitation and the
ephemerides (coordinates) of the celestial bodies (moon, sun,
planets).
The computations are carried out separately for the individual
two-body systems (earth-moon, earth-sun etc.), and the results
are subsequently added, with the celestial bodies regarded as
point masses.

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 1.5.3 Non-tidal Temporal Variations
 The terrestrial gravity field is affected by a number of
variations with time due to mass redistributions in the
atmosphere, the hydrosphere, and the solid earth. These
processes take place at different time scales and are of
global, regional, and local character.
 Long-term global effects include postglacial rebound, melting of
the ice caps and glaciers, as well as sea level changes induced by
atmospheric warming
 slow motions of the earth's core and mantle convection also
contribute. Subsidence/sink to lower level in sedimentary basins
and tectonic uplift are examples of regional effects.
» Generally, gravity changes produced by mass redistributions do not
exceed the order of 10~9 to 10~8g, while geoid changes remain less
than 1 mm/a.
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 Reading assignment.
1.Read about Spherical Harmonic Expansion of the
Gravitational Potential.
2.What will happen, if the gravity between the earth
and sun will have increased two times?
3.What is the gravity according to Einstein’s
general theory of relativity?

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