Transmission media

Helps in transmitting raw bit stream from one point to another

point.
Transmissio
n media

Unguided/
Guided/ Cable wireless

Eg: twisted pair Radio waves,

co axial cable Infra red light,
optical fibers microwaves
 Advantages Disadvantages

 Can be used for both  For long-distance

analog and digital transmissions, repeater
transmission. stations are necessary for
 Has Higher bandwidth. amplifying and
retransmitting weakened
 Easy to handle and signals.
relatively inexpensive as  No of node connection is
compared to optical fibers. limited.
 Used for longer distance at
higher data rates.
 Installation and
maintenance is simple.
 Optical Fiber

 Introduced in 1970’s.
 Transmits light signals than electrical signals.
 Consists of of a very fine cylinder of glass (core) surrounded
by a concentric layer of glass (Cladding).
 The information is transmitted in the form of a fluctuating
beam of light. Glass cladding is having a lower index of
refraction than the core to keep all the light inside the core
 Above cladding is plastic jacket which protects the cladding.
Two types of Optical Fiber
 Single Mode Fiber
 Have very narrow core
diameter which
propagates only one light
ray along the axis.

 Multi Mode Fibers

 Has a large core diameter
which supports more
than 1 propagation
 Advantages Disadvantages

 Provides high bandwidth  More expensive than the co-

because uses light rays axial cable.
than electricity.  Difficult to install and
 Low attenuation and hence maintain
frequent repeaters are not
necessary.
Unguided Transmission
Media
1.Radio Wave
2.MicroWave
3.Infrared wave
 Radio Waves

Radio waves are omnidirectional. (all directional)

When an antenna transmits radio waves, they are propagated
in all directions. This means that the sending and receiving
antennas do not have to be aligned. A sending antenna sends
waves that can be received by any receiving antenna.
Radio waves, particularly those waves that propagate in the
sky mode, can travel long distances.
This makes radio waves a good candidate for long distance
broadcasting such as AM radio.
At low frequencies radio waves pass through obstacles well
but the power falls off with distance from source. This is called
path loss.
It is a technique where data is transmitted using radio waves and
therefore energy travels through the air rather than copper or glass.
Conceptually, radio, TV, cellular phones etc. 
Omnidirectional Antenna
Receiving signals from or transmitting in all directions.
 Radio Transmission

(a) In the VLF, LF, and MF bands, radio waves follow the curvature of the earth.
(b) In the HF band, they bounce off the ionosphere, the ground waves tend to be absorbed by the
earth. The layer of charged particle circling the earth are refracted by it and sent back to earth.
Applications
The omnidirectional characteristics of radio waves make them
useful for multicasting, in which there is one sender but many
receivers.
Radio
Wi-Fi
Cellular Networks
Microwaves
Bluetooth
GPS
 Microwave
Microwaves are Electromagnetic waves having frequencies
between 1 and 300 GHz are called microwaves.
Microwaves are unidirectional.
When an antenna transmits microwave waves, they can be
narrowly focused. This means that the sending and receiving
antennas need to be aligned.

Unidirectional Antenna
Microwaves need unidirectional antennas that send out signals in
one direction.
Applications
Microwaves, due to their unidirectional properties, are very useful
when unicast (one to one) communication is needed between the sender
and the receiver.
The cellular phones, and wireless LANs are examples of the
applications that use the microwave signals
Advantages of Microwave Transmission

Used for long distance telephone communication.

multiple channels available,
No cable is needed.

Disadvantages of Microwave Transmission

It is Very costly
Towers are expensive to build.
Line of sight will be disrupted if any obstacles.
 Infrared
Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz can be
used for short range communication.
Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls.
 This advantageous characteristic prevents interference between
one system and another.
 A short range communication system in one room cannot be
affected by another system in the next room.
When we use our infrared remote control, we do not interfere with
the use of the remote by our neighbors.
In addition, we cannot use infrared waves outside a building
because the sun's rays contain infrared waves that can interfere with
the communication
 Switching

Switching is a technique used to connect the systems for making

one-to-one communication.

1. Circuit Switching
When two nodes communicate with each other over a dedicated
communication path, it is called circuit switching.
There is a need of pre-specified route from which data will travels
and no other data is permitted
In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send
the data, voice, video, a request signal is sent to the receiver then
the receiver sends back the acknowledgment to ensure the
availability of the dedicated path. After receiving the
acknowledgment, dedicated path transfers the data.
circuit switching may have to go through three phases:
1.Establish a circuit
2.Transfer the data
3.Disconnect the circuit
Circuit switching was designed for voice applications. Telephone is
the best suitable example of circuit switching. Before a user can
make a call, a virtual path between caller and callee is established
over the network.
 Packet Switching
•The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and
packets are given a unique number to identify their order at the
receiving end.
•Every packet contains some information in its headers such as
source address, destination address and sequence number.
•Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as
possible.
•All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct
order.
•If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent
Advantages of Packet Switching:
Efficient use of Network.
Easily get around broken bits or packets.
Circuit Switching charges user on the distance and duration of
connection but Packet Switching charges users only on the basis of
duration of connectivity.
High Data Transmission in a Packet Switching is very easy.
All the packets not follow same route in Packet Switching but in
Circuit Switching all the packets follow same rout.
Packet Switching use digital network and enables digital data to be
directly transmitted toward destination.
Disadvantages of Packet Switching:
In Packet Switching Packets arriving in wrong order.
Takes Transmission delay.
Requires Large amount RAM (Random Access Memory) to
handle large amount of data communication in packets.
Switching Nods required more procession power to reconstruct
packets.
 Multiplexing

Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send the multiple

data streams over a single medium. The process of combining the data
streams is known as multiplexing and hardware used for multiplexing
is known as a multiplexer.

•Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called Multiplexer (MUX)

that combines n input lines to generate a single output line.
Multiplexing follows many-to-one, i.e., n input lines and one output
line.

•Demultiplexing is achieved by using a device called Demultiplexer

(DEMUX) available at the receiving end. DEMUX separates a signal
Multiplexing
 Frequency Division Multiplexing

It is used in the analogue signal, a multiplexing technique that

uses different frequencies to combine multiple streams of data
for transmission over a communications medium. FDM assigns a
different carrier frequency to each data stream and then
combines many modulated carrier frequencies for transmission.

The carrier frequencies are separated by a sufficient bandwidth

to accommodate the modulated signal. It carries frequency to
each data stream and later combines various modulated
frequencies to transmission.

Television Transmitters are the best example for FDM, which

uses FDM to broad cast many channels at a time.
 Time division multiplexing

• Digital technique
• Time slots are allotted to each system
• Applied when data rate of the channel is > data rate of sending
devices
• Time slots are grouped in frames
• Two types:
1)Synchronous TDM
2)Asynchronous TDM
 Synchronous Time division multiplexing
1. In synchronous TDM, each device is given same time slot to
transmit the data over the link, irrespective of the fact that the
device has any data to transmit or not.
2. Each device places its data onto the link when its time slot
arrives i.e. each device is given the possession of line turn by turn.
3. If any device does not have data to send then its time slot
remains empty.
4. The various time slots are organized into frames and each frame
consists of one or more time slots dedicated to each sending device.
5. If there are n sending devices, there will be n slots in frame i.e.
one slot for each device.
 Disadvantage of Synchronous TDM

1. The channel capacity cannot be fully utilized. Some of the slots

go empty in certain frames.. This wastes the l/4th capacity of links.
 Asynchronous Time division multiplexing
Asynchronous TDM is called so because is this type of
multiplexing, time slots are not fixed i.e. the slots are flexible.

Here the total speed of input lines can be greater than the capacity
of the path.

 In synchronous TDM, if we have n input lines then there are n slots

in one frame. But in asynchronous it is not so.

In asynchronous TDM, if we have n input lines then the frame

contains not more than m slots, with m less than n (m < n).
 ISDN(Integrated Services Digital
Network)

• ISDN is a telecommunications technology that enables the

transmission of digital data over standard phone lines. It can
be used for voice calls as well as data transfers.
 ISDN Services
• Bearer Services
• Teleservices
• Supplementary Services.

1. Bearer Services

Transfer of information (voice, data and video) between users

without the network manipulating the content of that information is
provided by the bearer network. There is no need for the network to
process the information and therefore does not change the content.
Bearer services belong to the first three layers of the OSI model.
2.Teleservices
In this the network may change or process the contents of
the data. These services corresponds to layers 4-7 of the OSI
model. Teleservices relay on the facilities of the bearer
services and are designed to accommodate complex user
needs. The user need not to be aware of the details of the
process. Teleservices include telephony, teletex, telefax,
videotex, telex and teleconferencing. 
 3. Supplementary Services.

• Additional functionality to the bearer services

and teleservices are provided by supplementary
services. call waiting, Call Hold…etc
ISDN System Architecture
1. Digital Bit Pipe
Bidirectional conceptual pipe through which bits flow between end user and CO/ ISDN
exchange.
Bits may correspond to any of the services.
 Supports TDM
 Two categories defined.
 Home user – Low bandwidth
Business user – High bandwidth
 Total BW divided into Channels.
Each channel equal to one home user channel.
Business users can have multiple bit pipe each having multiple channels
2.ISDN Channel Types
BEARER CHANNEL B
 64 kbps data rate.
 Used for digitized voice, data or other low data rate
information.
 Full duplex.
 8000 samples/s X 8 bits/sample = 64kbps.
 One B channel per subscriber per exchange of
information.
 Subscriber will contend for B channel.
 For higher data rates , two B channel can be combined to
give 128kbps.
DATA CHANNEL D
Contrast to name, does NOT carry data.
Carries controlling signals as establishing a call,
ringing, call interrupt etc.
 Carries control signals for all using Out-band signaling.
Common channel signaling.
 Subscriber secures a B connection by using D channel.
 In case of no signaling, it can be used to carry data as
videotext, tele-text, emergency services alarms etc..
HYBRID CHANNEL H
 Used at high BW requirements.
 384 / 1536 / 1920 kbps.
 Used for video, video-conferencing, high speed
data/audio etc.
 Can be sub divided as per need.
 Can be used as B channel for high BW needs.
 ISDN Interface
1. Basic rate interface
 used for home users.
 Specifies a digital pipe with 2 B channels and 1 D channel
(16kbps).
 2 X 64 + 16 = 144kbps
 In addition, BRI services requires 48 kbps of management
overheads.
 Total data rate - 192 kbps.
 User can use one B channel for a call and other for browsing.
 Both B channel can be combined for faster connection to
internet.
2. Primary rate interface
 used for business users.
 Specifies a very big digital pipe with 23 B channels and 1
D channel (64kbps).
 In addition, BRI services requires 8 kbps of management
overheads.
 23 X 64 + 64+ 8 = 1.544Mbps.
 Compatible with T1 line
 A User can use more than one B channel
 Digital PBX
• PBX stands for Private Branch Exchange, which is a private
telephone network used within a company or organization.
The users of the PBX phone system can communicate
internally (within their company) and externally (with the
outside world), using different communication channels
like Voice over IP, ISDN or analog. A PBX also allows you to
have more phones than physical phone lines (PTSN) and
allows free calls between users. Additionally, it provides
features like transfer calls, voicemail, call recording,
interactive voice menus (IVRs) and call queues.
 ISDN Signaling
1. User network Signaling
2. Intra network Signaling
3. User to user signaling