Electromag

netism
C. MUIS
 Electromag
netism
4.1 Force on a Current-carrying Conductor in
a Magnetic Field

4.2 Electromagnetic Induction

4.3 Transformers
8.1 Magnetic Effect of a Current-carrying Conductor

When a current flows

through the coil, it
produces a magnetic field.

Temporary magnet
which can be made by The soft iron core
sending an electric becomes
current through a coil temporarily
of wire wound magnetized when
around an iron the current is
core switched on.
Electromagnet
Used in motors,
generators, relays,  When the current is
loudspeakers,  hard switched off, it loses
disks, MRI machine. its magnetism.
Soft Iron Core
Wire

4
What is a magnetic field?
 The magnetic field is a region around a magnet or a current-carrying conductor in which a
magnetic force will act on a magnetic material.
 The magnetic field consisting of magnet lines or magnetic flux.
 Magnetic field lines which are close together represent a strong field.
 The field direction is defined as the direction indicated by a compass needle placed in the
magnetic field.

The Right-Hand Grip Rule

 Grip the wire using the right hand, with your thumb pointing in the direction of the current. Your
other fingers now point round the wire in the direction of the magnetic field.
 When the direction of the current is reversed, the magnetic field direction also is reversed.

Magnetic field
lines
Current Thumb points
flow in the direction
of the current

Other fingers Right Hand

give the
direction of the Straight wire
field carrying a
current 5
The magnetic field pattern and the direction of the magnetic field due to a current in :

1. Straight Wire

Current into the paper Current out of the paper

6
2. Coil

3. Solenoid

7
The thumbs is
pointing to the N pole. Note:
The right hand grip rule for a
solenoid:

N s The thumb points towards north

pole of the magnetic field while
the other fingers indicate the
direction of the current in the
Fingers curl in the solenoid.
direction of current

current Number of
flowing in the
turns in
solenoid
solenoid
Factors that affect
the strength of the
electromagnet.

Distance Use of soft

between the iron core
turns
8
Application of Electromagnet

Electric Bell

1. When the bell push is

pressed, a current flows in
the coils of the
electromagnet, causing it
to be magnetized. Contacts
2. The magnetized
electromagnet attracts the
soft-iron armature, causing
the hammer to strike the
gong.
3. The movement of the
armature breaks the
contact and causes the
electromagnet to lose it
magnetism.

4. The light spring pulls the armature back, remaking the contact and completing the circuit
again.
5. The cycle is repeated so long as the bell push is pressed and continuous ringing occurs.

How Electric Bell works?

9
Electromagnetic Relay

1. Electromagnetic relay is used

as a switch that uses the
small current small to switch
on or off one another circuit
that uses a large current.
2. Circuit 1 requires only a small
current.
3. When the switch is closed,
current flows in the coil,
causing the soft-iron core to
be magnetized and attracts
the armarture.

4. The movement of the iron armature closes the contacts in the second circuit. Circuit 2 is now
switched on.
5. Circuit 2 may have a large current flowing through it to operate powerful motors or very bright
lights
6. The advantage of using a relay is
a) that a small current (circuit 1) can be used to switch on and off a circuit with a large
current (circuit 2).
b) circuit 1 may contain a component such as a light detecting resistor (LDR), which uses
small currents.
c) Only the circuit with a large current needs to be connected with thick wire.
10
Telephone Ear-piece iron core

1. The varying current from the microphone current

flows through the coils of an electromagnet in
the earpiece.
2. This pulls the iron diaphragm towards the
electromagnet by a distance which depends
on the current.
3. As a result, the diaphragm moves in and out
and produces sound waves that are replicas coil
of those that entered the microphone.

Circuit Breaker

1. Acts as an automatic switch that Soft iron armature

breaks open a circuit when the Reset button pulled towards
current becomes too large. electromagnet
2. Current may become excessive
when there is a short circuit or Spring pulls
an overload. open the
contacts
3. The strength of the magnetic
field of the electromagnet From mains Electromagnet
increases suddenly. The soft iron supply
To household
armature is pulled towards the circuit
electromagnet. Contacts
4. This results in the spring pulling apart the contacts. The circuit is broken and the current flow
stops immediately.
5. After repairs have been made, the reset button is pushed to switch on the supply again.
11
8.2 Force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field
What happens to a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field ?
conductor is
pushed upwards

Switch closed
When a conductor carries an electric current through another magnetic field, a magnetic
force is exerted on the wire.
The combination of the magnetic field due to the current in the conductor and the external
magnetic field produce a resultant magnetic field. This resultant magnetic field produce a
magnetic force which later act on the current carrying conductor.
Force direction

Magnetic field
The direction of the magnetic
direction
force, F, acting on the conductor can
be determined by using Fleming’s
left-hand rule.
Current
direction 12
Investigation on the force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field

Magnadur
magnets Thick copper
wire
U-shaped
steel yoke +
- d.c. power
supply
Short copper
wire

Show the direction of the force using the Fleming’s left-hand rule.

F F

Diagram 1 Diagram 2 13
 F F

Diagram 3 Diagram 4

The direction of magnetic field is parallel to the

direction of current.

The short wire stays at rest.

Diagram 5

1. When a current-carrying conductor is in a magnetic field of a permanent magnet, the

interaction between the two magnetic fields produce a force on the conductor.
2. The direction of the magnetic field, the current and the force acting on a conductor is
perpendicular to each other.
14
How a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field experiences a force ?
1. The magnadur magnets produce a uniform, parallel magnetic field.
2. The current-carrying vertical wire produces a circular magnetic field around itself.
3. The two fields interact to produce a resultant magnetic field known as a catapult field.
4. Upward, the two fields are in the same direction and they produce a stronger combined field.
5. Downward, the two fields act in opposite directions and the combined field is weaker.
6. The wire carrying a current thus experiences a resultant force in the direction from the stronger
to the weaker field, i.e from upward to downward.

Magnetic Field of Magnetic Field of

Permanent Magnet Current carrying conductor

N S

N S

15
Catapult Field Region of stronger
magnetic field

N S

Region of weaker
magnetic field Force
on wire

Increase current in
the conductor Greater force
The magnitude of the
force on a current-
carrying conductor in a
magnetic field
Use stronger
permanent magnet Greater force
16
Resultant magnetic field or catapult field for a current-carrying coil in a magnetic field.

Magnetic Field of Magnetic Field of

Permanent Magnet Current-carrying Coil

N S

N S

F
Catapult Field for a Current-carrying Coil 17
Show the direction of the resultant force, F.

F
What will happen to the coil?
The coil will rotate clockwise.

F
Current

How a direct current motor works?

Coil of wire Commutator:

Permanent Reverse the direction of current in the
Magnet coil every half rotation so that the coil
continues to turn in same direction

Carbon Brush:
Spring To contact with the commutator so the
Commutator
current from the battery enters the
coil.
Carbon
brush Spring:
Push the brush so it will always contact
with the commutator.

18
The working principle of the direct current motor

1 • When current flows through the horizontal

B C coil, magnetic field is produced around it.
• The interaction between the magnetic field
N F F S of the current and the magnetic field of the
permanent magnet produces a _________
catapult
A D
field and 2 turning force.
• The direction of the force is determined by
Fleming’s left-hand rule.
• rotate
The two forces _____________the coil
anticlockwise
______________________________.

C
2

• When the coil gets to the upright position,

N D S
B
the contact between the carbon brushes
with the commutator is broken.
• no
There is ________turning force on it
A
because no current flows in the coil.
• But the coil continues to rotate because of
its _______________.
inertia

19
3 C B

• When the coil in a horizontal position N F F S

again, the sides of the coil changes
position. D A
• The commutator_________________
reverses
the direction of the current in the coil to
ensure that the forces on the coil turn
the coil in one direction only.
• So the coil is still rotating in the same
direction
_______________.

B • The above processes are repeated and

4 the motor continues to rotate.

N A
S
C

20
 current Number of
flowing in the
turns in coil
coil
Factors which
affect the speed of
rotation of the
motor

Strength of Area of the

the magnetic coil
field

“ Life is like riding a bicycle, in order to keep

your balance, you must keep moving.

” Albert Einstein
(1879 - 1955) 21
Exercise 8.1
a) On diagram 1.1, sketch the magnetic field between the two magnadur magnets.

N S

b) On diagram 1.2, sketch the magnetic field produced by a wire carrying a current into the paper.

22
c) On diagram 1.3, sketch the magnetic field produced by a wire carrying a current into the paper
between the two magnadur magnets. Hence, draw the direction of the force acting on the wire.

N S

Force

d) What is the name of the field that you drawn in diagram 1.3 ?
Catapult field

e) State two factors that affect the force acting on the wire.
Magnitude of current in the wire
Strength of permanent magnet

23
24
Discussion

1. What is the relationship between the current in the coil and the
voltage supplied?

The larger the voltage, the larger the current.

2. Describe the change in the speed of rotation of the motor when:

increases
(a) The voltage supplied is increased

(b) The strength of the magnetic filed is increased Increases

(c) The number of turns of the coil is increased. Increases

3. State the factors that affect the speed of rotation of a motor.

Current in the coil Strength of magnetic Coil with more turns

increases field increases is used
increases
increases
increases
increases
No frictional force

High efficiency

Zero maintance

Long lasting

High cost
 X to Y

The interaction between two magnetic fields: the magnetic field from the electric current in
the conductor and the magnetic field from the permanent magnet will produce a resultant
magnetic field – catapult field. A force will be exerted on the copper wire XY to the right.
Fleming’s left hand rule
/
Peraturan Tangan kiri
Fleming
Concentration of magnetic field / produce
stronger magnetic field / Menumpukan medan
magnet / medan magnet lebih kuat
Greater / besar
Increase the force /
strength of magnetic
field / daya bertambah /
kekuatan medan
magnet bertambah
8
Greater / banyak

Increase current/ arus besar

Semi circular shape / semi bulatan

Increase strength of magnetic field / radial

magnetic field / tambah kekuatan medan
magnet / medan magnet jejarian

Motor X
8.3 Electromagnetic induction
Electromagnetic induction is the production of an electric current by a changing
magnetic field as a result of relative motion between the conductor and the
magnetic field.
How induced current is produced?
• The induced current is produced only when there is relative motion between the
conductor / coil and the magnetic field lines.

• The relative motion of a conductor across a magnetic field can be produced by:

1. moving a straight wire quickly across 2. Moving a permanent magnet towards

a magnetic field between two flat one end of a solenoid or vice versa.
magnets or vice versa.

40
Each time the straight wire cuts across the magnetic field, or the permanent magnet moves towards
the solenoid, a current is induced in the coil and a deflection is observed in the sensitive
galvanometer.

This current is called induced current. The electromotive force that is produced is called the
induced e.m.f.

A. Electromagnetic Induction in a Galvanometer

Connecting
straight wire. wires with
crocodile clips
Observation :
1. If a galvanometer shows a
deflection, it means there is an
induced current produced
2. Current is induced in a straight
conductor when it moves and
cuts the magnetic field lines Copper rod
(1 & 2 only). with bare
3. The motion of the copper rod ends
must be perpendicular to the
Magnadur
direction of the magnetic field
magnet
lines ( 1 & 2 only ) so that an
induced current will be
produced.

41
B. Electromagnetic Induction in a solenoid

Galvanometer Galvanometer

Galvanometer

Solenoid Solenoid Solenoid

Magnet
Magnet Magnet

1. Push the bar magnet 2. Hold the bar magnet 3. Pull the bar magnet out
into the solenoid. stationary in the of the solenoid.
Observe the deflection solenoid. Note the Observe the deflection
of the galvanometer. reading of the of the galvanometer.
galvanometer.

Observation :
1. The galvanometer showed a positive reading when the bar magnet and solenoid were
coming closer to each other. This shows that a current is produced in the solenoid in certain
direction.

42
2. The galvanometer showed a negative reading when the magnet and solenoid were moving
further away from each other. This shows that a current is produced in the solenoid in the
opposite directions.
3. A current is induced in a solenoid when there is relative motion between the solenoid and a
magnet.

Conclusion
1. Current is induced in a straight conductor when it moves and cuts the magnetic field
lines.
2. Current is induced in a solenoid when there is relative motion between the solenoid and
a magnet.

1 How to indicate the direction of the induced current in a straight wire ?

Force/ motion
Magnetic field direction
direction Fleming’s right-hand rule
If the thumb and the first two fingers on the right
hand are held at right angles to each other with
the first finger pointing in the direction of the
Current magnetic field and the thumb in the direction of
direction the motion, then the second finger points in the
direction of the induced current.

43
 Q
Magnetic field lines Direction of
motion
A wire PQ is moved vertically downwards in a
magnetic field.

The induced current will flow from P to Q.

[Apply Fleming’s right-hand rule]

2 How to indicate the direction of the induced current in a solenoid ?

Lenz’s Law Relative motion between Polarity at the end of the

magnet and solenoid solenoid facing the magnet
The resulting induced
current always flows Toward each other Same polarity as the magnet
in the direction
opposing the change Away from each other Opposite polarity as the
in magnetic flux that magnet
produced it.

44
Magnet is moved towards the solenoid
Induced current produces a North pole to
oppose the motion of the magnet coming
towards the solenoid

Repulsion

Magnet is pushed
towards solenoid

Magnet is moved away from the solenoid

Induced current produces a South pole to attract
the magnet moving away from it

Attraction

Magnet is pushed
away from solenoid

45
Faraday’s Law:
The magnitude of the induced e.m.f is directly proportional to the rate at which
the conductor cuts through the magnetic field lines.

Speed of Movement of Greater induced

the magnet or the
current
solenoid

Number of turns on The magnitude of

Greater induced
the solenoid induced current in
current
solenoid

Increase strength of the

magnetic field through the Greater induced
use of a stronger current
magnet

46
Show the correct direction of the induced current when the magnet is moved in the direction
shown.

Galvanometer Galvanometer

Direction of Direction of
the movement the movement

S N N S N S S N

Galvanometer Galvanometer

Direction of Direction of
the movement the movement

S N S N N S N S

47
 Applications of electromagnetic induction

Current Generator
1. Current generator functions by converting mechanical energy to electrical energy.
2. Current generator works based on electromagnetic induction and uses the Fleming’s Right hand
rule.
3. Current generator is divided into direct current generator and alternate current generator.

Direct Current Generator

Coil of wire
Permanent
Magnet

Spring

Commutator
reverses the connections of the coil with
Carbon brush the external circuit after every half cycle,
so that the current in the outside circuit
always flows in the same direction.

48
How does a direct current generator work?
Show the direction of movement of the coil AB and CD.
Mark the direction of the induced current in the coil and the galvanometer
C
1 B C
2 F

N S N S
D
F F B

A D
F

downwards
1. Coil AB moves ______________, coil CD 1. The sides AB and CD are moving
moves______________.
upwards parallel
_______________ to the magnetic field
and thus do not ___________
cut the
2. When the coil rotates, its sides cut across magnetic field lines.
the magnetic field lines and induced
current flows in the coil from 2. No ________
Induced ______________is
current
B to A and D to C
________________. produced at the instant.

3. The galvanometer will deflect to zero

3. The galvanometer returns to ______mark.
left
________________.
49
 B
3 4
C B F

N F F S N A
D S
F
D A

1. As the coil continues to rotate, current 1. The sides AB and CD are moving
will again be induced in the coil but its parallel
_________________ to the magnetic
direction in now opposite to that in figure cut
field and thus do not ______________
C
1 which is from _______ D
to _______ and the magnetic field lines.
from _______ A to _______.
B
induced
2. No ___________ current
____________is
2. However, the direction of the current produced at the instant.
through the external circuit remains the
same, so the galvanometer deflects to zero
3. The galvanometer returns to _______
the _______.
right mark.

repeats
4. The process ________________.
50
The induced current varies from a maximum to zero, it flows in one direction only.
Hence, the induced current is called a direct current.

Induced Current

1 cycle

Angle

0° 90° 180° 270° 360°

B C B

A C B D B C A
C B C

D A A D
D A D

51
Alternating Current Generator

a.c. generator Coil

invented by Nikola
Tesla Magnet
Magnet

Bulb

Slip rings
Carbon brush

1. The two ends of the coil are connected to two slip rings which rotate with the coil.
2. Each slip ring is always in contact with the same carbon brush.
52
How does an alternating current generator work?
Show the direction of movement of the coil AB and CD.
Mark the direction of the induced current in the coil and the galvanometer.

C
1 B C
2 F

N F F S N D
B S
A D
P F
P
A

Q Q

downwards coil CD
1. Coil AB moves ______________, 1. The sides AB and CD are moving
upwards
moves _________________. parallel
_______________ to the magnetic field and
cut
thus do not ______________ the magnetic
2. When the coil rotates, its sides cut across field lines.
the magnetic field lines and induced
current flows in the coil from ______to
D induced _______________
2. No ____________ current is
C
_______ B to ______
and from ______ A produced at the instant.
(using Fleming’s right hand rule)
3. The galvanometer returns to _________
zero
3. In the external circuits, current flows from mark.
P
_______ Q
to _______.
53
 B

3 C B
4 F

N A
S
N F F S C

D A F
P P
D

Q Q

1. After the vertical position, the current 1. The sides AB and CD are moving
increases until it attains the maximum value parallel
_______________to the magnetic field
when the coil is in a horizontal position. cut
and thus do not ________the magnetic
field lines.
2. Coil CD moves ______________,
downwards coil AB
moves _________________.
upwards 2. No ____________
induced _______________is
current
produced at the instant.
3. The direction of the induced current is from
_______
C to _______
D and from _______
A to zero
3. The galvanometer returns to _______
_________.
B mark.

4. The direction of the current through the 4. The process __________________.

repeats
Q
external circuit is from the brush _______ to
__________which
P is reversed.

54
 Induced Current

1 cycle

Angle

0° 90° 180° 270° 360°

B B
C

A C B B C A
C D C
B
D A A
P P P P D P D
D A
Q Q Q Q Q

1. The output current that generated a.c. generator is an alternating current because the current
changes direction in the external circuit each time the coil passes the vertical position.
2. Assume the current flows from P to Q is positive and the current flows from Q to P is negative.
3. The current changes the magnitude and direction after every half rotation.
55
 direct current alternating current

Magnitude of current may be: Magnitude of current may be:

(a) constant (a) constant
(b) changes with time but (b) changes with time and

constant direction direction changes periodically

I (A) Constant direction &

I (A) Constant magnitude but
magnitude
different direction

t (s) t (s)

I (A) Constant direction but

varying magnitude I (A) Varying magnitude and
direction

t (s) t (s)

56
 current which flows
current that to and fro in two
flows in one magnitude opposite directions in
direction only may be: a circuit. It changes
in a circuit (a) constant its direction
(b) changes with periodically.
time

alternating
direct current d.c. and a.c.
current
(d.c.)
(a.c.)
cannot flow can flow
through a through a
can flow
capacitor capacitor
through a
resistor/ bulb

capacitor capacitor

bulb bulb

resistor resistor
57
 I (A)
 The current increases from zero
A to a maximum value of +Io (at A),
Io
and back to zero (at B). It then
B D reverses direction and increases
O t (s)
T 2T to -Io (at C) and back to zero
again.
-Io
C
1 cycle Io = peak current,
Vo = peak voltage
alternating current
 The time taken for a complete
cycle from O to D is called
period, T.
V (V)
 Frequency of the current, f = 1/T
A
Vo
 In Malaysia, the frequency of the
B D a.c supply is 50 Hz. Hence, the
O t (s)
T 2T period of the a.c is :

-V o T = 1/50 = 0.02 seconds.

C
1 cycle

alternating voltage
58
Exercise 8.1
1. Diagram 2 shows the structure of a simple electric generator.

Diagram 2.1

a) What type of generator is shown in Diagram 2?

alternating current generator

b) Name the part labelled

(i) slip ring
P : ___________________________________________
(ii) carbon brush
Q : ___________________________________________

c) Name the physics phenomenon that is related to principle of a generator ?

Electromagnetic induction
59
d) Using the axes below, sketch a graph of the voltage (V) across the the resistor against
time (t).

Voltage (V)

Time (t)

e) State two ways that can increase the voltage produced by a generator.
Increase the number of turns in the coil
Increase the speed of rotation of the coil

f) Draw the direction of the current in the coil at the instant shown in Diagram 2.1.

60
2. Figure shows an alternating current with a magnitude that changes with time.

I/A

t/s
0.08

-5

a) What is the peak current?

b) What is the period of the a.c. current?
c) What is the frequency of the a.c current?

Ans :
a) 5 V
b) 0.04 s
c) 25 Hz

61
8.4 Transformers

A transformer is an electrical device which increases or decreases an alternating voltage

based on the principle of electromagnetic induction.

Structure of a simple transformer

Laminated soft-iron core

VP VS

Primary coil Secondary coil

Structure of transformer Symbol of transformer

 A transformer consists of two coils of wire  The purpose of the common iron core is
wound round separately on a laminated to provide a magnetic field linkage in the
soft-iron core. secondary coil.
 The coil connected to the input voltage is
called the primary coil. The coil
connected to the output voltage is called
the secondary coil.
62
Operating principle of a simple transformer
 The principle of a transformer is involves  The changing magnetic flux is cut by the
electromagnetism and the principle of secondary coil, producing induced e.m.f.
electromagnetic induction. in the secondary coil.
 When alternating current with an input  Induced e.m.f. which produced in the
voltage, VP flowing through the primary secondary coil causes an alternating
coil, a varying magnetic field produced current with a output voltage, VS flows
around the primary coil. through a load which connected across
 The soft iron core is magnetized and the secondary coil.
transfer the varying magnetic field to  The magnitude of the output voltage, VS
secondary coil. depends on the ratio of the primary coil
and the secondary coil.

Why does the transformer not work with a d.c power supply?

 A current is induced in the secondary coil  A constant direct current whose

only when there is a changing magnetic magnitude and direction is constant does
flux due to a changing primary current. not create a changing magnetic flux in
(changes direction and magnitude) the secondary coil.
 A d.c. power supply gives a constant  Therefore electromagnetic induction does
current in the primary circuit not take place.

63
Relationship between number of turns in coils with voltage in a transformer

 According to Faraday’s law:

Voltage ∝ number of turns in coils

VP NP NS VS
VαN
V  kN VP VS
 Primary coil Secondary coil
NP NS
V
k Vp = input (primary) voltage
N
Vs = output (secondary) voltage
Np = number of turns in the primary coils
Ns = number of turns in the secondary coils
Step-up transformer X Step-down transformer

Step-up transformer Step-down transformer

If Ns is greater than Np, then Vs is greater than Vp If Ns is lower than Np, then Vs is lower than Vp

VP NP NS VS VP VS VP NP NS VS VP VS

Ns > Np , Vs > Vp Ns < N p , V s < V p 64

Relationship between output power and input power of an ideal transformer
 A transformer transfers electrical power  In an ideal transformer, there is no energy
from the primary circuit to the secondary loss during the process of transforming the
circuit. voltage.
 The primary circuit of a transformer receives
power at a certain voltage from the a.c Power supplied to = Power used in the
power supply. The transformer delivers this the primary coil secondary coil
power at another voltage to an electrical
device connected to the secondary circuit. Input power = Output power

VpIp = VsIs

A.C. power Electrical

Input power Output power
supply device

Primary circuit Secondary circuit

Energy loses in a transformer

 In a real transformer, some energy is lost in the transformer especially in the form of heat.
 The output power is less than the input power.
 Therefore the efficiency of the transformer is less than 100%.
65
Efficiency of a transformer

The power loss is due to

Output Power (a) heating of coils
Efficiency   100%
Input Power (b) eddy currents in the iron core
(c) magnetization and demagnetization of core
(d) leakage of magnetic flux.

Input power Useful output

from a.c. power power supplied
supply to an electrical
device

Power loss

Causes of energy loss in transformers Ways to improve the efficiency of a

transformer
Resistance of the coils Use thick copper wires to make the coils
 all coils will have resistance The resistance will reduce as the wire is thicker.
 heat is produced when current flows
through them

66
Causes of energy loss in transformers Ways to improve the efficiency of a
transformer
Eddy currents in the core Use laminated cores to reduce eddy currents
 The changing magnetic field will also
induces current in the iron core.
 This induced current is called eddy current.
 This current cause heat to be produced in
the iron cores.
Secondary
coil
Primary
coil

Laminated
core

Magnetization and demagnetization of the Use cores made from soft-iron as soft-iron core
core can be easily magnetized and demagnetized.
 the alternating current flowing through the
transformer continually magnetizes and
demagnetizes the core
 work has to be done to change the
magnitude and direction of the magnetic
field in the core

67
Causes of energy loss in transformers Ways to improve the efficiency of a
transformer
Leakage of magnetic field Wind the secondary coil on top of the primary
 electrical energy is lost when a fraction of coil
the magnetic field produced by the primary
Laminated soft-iron core
coil does not link with the secondary coil.

Input terminals
Transformer Output terminals
coils

“ When the world says, ‘Give up’, Hope

whispers, ‘Try it one more time.’
”
68
Exercise 8.4
1. A transformer is required to step down the 2. A step up transformer has 10 000 turns on
mains voltage of 240 V provide a 12 V its secondary coil and 100 turns on its
supply for an electric toy. If the primary coil is primary coil. An alternating current of 5.0 A
wound with 1 000 turns of wire, calculate the flows in the primary coil when it is connected
number of turns required for the secondary to a 12 V a.c supply. Calculate:
coil. a) the input power to the transformer
b) the e.m.f induced across the secondary
Ans : 50 coil.
c) the maximum current that could flow in a
circuit connected to the secondary coil if
the transformer is 100% efficient.

Ans :
a) 60 W
b) 1200 V
c) 0.05 A

69
Question 3
Diagram shows three identical bulbs of 16 V, 48 W each connected in series to the secondary coil
of a transformer. The input voltage is 240 V from the mains supply.

240 V

The primary coil has 4800 turns. The three bulbs are lighted with normal brightness.

a) What is meant by normal brightness ?

Normal brightness means the voltage supplied to bulb is the same as the voltage
labelled on the bulb

b) What is the output voltage of the transformer ?

Ans : 48 V

70
c) Determine the number of turns of wire in the secondary coil.

Ans : 960 turns

d) If the transformer is 100% efficient, calculate the current in the primary coil.

Ans : 0.6 A

71
e) If the transformer is 80% efficient, calculate the current in the primary coil.
Ans : 0.75 A

f) State two ways which causes a transformer to lose energy.

Resistance of coil
Eddy current in the iron core

72
8.5 Generation And Transmission Of Electricity
Electricity is generated in power stations, transmitted (sent) through long-distance cables, and then
distributed to consumers.
Sources of energy used to generated electricity
Renewable energy sources : an energy resource that is continually replaced and will not run out.
Non-renewable sources: an energy resource that cannot be replaced once it has been used.
Renewable energy Non-renewable energy

• Biofuel • Coal
• Biomass • Crude oil
• Geothermal • Natural gas
• Hydropower • Nuclear Energy (Uranium)
• Solar energy
• Tidal power
• Wave power
• Wind power

Ways of generating electricity

• Electricity is produces using generators
• A generator has a huge magnet that is turned by a turbine.
• As the magnet turns inside a coil of wire, electricity is produced by electromagnetic induction.
• Many sources of energy are used to turn these turbines.
73
Coal-fired power • Coal is burned and the heat energy is used to produce high
station pressure steam which used to drive the generators to produce
electricity.
• The energy changes: chemical energy → heat energy → kinetic
energy → electric energy
Gas-fired power • The burning of natural gas produces high pressure steam that is
station used to drive turbines.
• The energy changes: chemical energy to heat energy to kinetic
energy to electric energy

Hydro-electric
Power station • A huge dam is built
across rivers to contain
water.
• When the water in the
dam is allowed to flow
down to a lower level, the
kinetic energy of the
moving water is used to
drive water turbines,
which in turn drive the
generators to produce
electricity.
• The energy changes:
potential energy → kinetic
energy → electric energy

74
Nuclear power 1. Energy from nuclear fission (splitting of uranium 235 atoms) is used
station to produce high pressure steam to drive turbines
2. The energy changes: nuclear energy → heat energy → kinetic
energy → electric energy

Biomass 1. Biomass includes rotting plants and agricultural wastes such as oil
palm kernels and household sewage that are used to produce
methane gas and alcohol.
2. Heat energy from the burning of biomass is used to generate
electricity

Solar 1. Solar energy originates from the sun

2. Solar cells use sun energy to generate small electrical energy to
power calculators.
3. Solar panels use sun energy to generate heat energy to heat water
at home.

Wind generator 1. High speed wind can be used to turn the blades of large windmills
which will in turn drive generators to produce electricity

“Two things are infinite: the universe and human

stupidity; and I'm not sure about the universe.”
― Albert Einstein
75
The Transmission of Electricity
1. Electrical energy is transmitted from power station to the consumer using long transmission
cables or power lines.
2. Electrical energy is transmitted at a high voltage and use alternating current.
3. A step-up transformer increases the voltage to as high as 110,000 or 132, 000 V.
4. Step-down transformers are used to decrease the voltage before being delivered to the
consumers.
5. The long tick cables used as transmission lines are made of copper or aluminium.

Energy loss in electricity transmission cables deduce the advantage of high voltage
transmission

1. The heating effect due to the resistance of the cables causes loss of electrical energy as heat
energy.
2. When a current flows in a cable, the power loss, P through heating is P = I2R where R is the
resistance of the cable.
3. The power loss can be reduced by
(a) reducing the resistance of the cables
(b) reducing the current in the cables
4. In order to reduce resistance of the cables, a thick copper or aluminium is used. But thick
cables are very expensive and will be too heavy to be supported securely.
5. The loss of power in the transmissions of electricity is reduced by reducing the current in the
cables.

PLoss = I2R
76
 The power to be transmitted by the cables is

PTrans = VI
where I = current in the cables, V = voltage across the cables.

6. This means that the current in the cables is inversely proportional to the voltage of the cables
for a certain value of power transmission.
7. When power is transmitted at lower voltage, the current in the cables is large.
8. The greater the current in the cables, the greater the power loss.

“All that is gold does not glitter,

Not all those who wander are lost;
The old that is strong does not wither,
Deep roots are not reached by the frost.

From the ashes a fire shall be woken,

A light from the shadows shall spring;
Renewed shall be blade that was broken,
The crownless again shall be king.”

― J.R.R. Tolkien, The Fellowship of the Ring

77
Exercise 8.5
1. Find the power loss in a transmission 2. Electric power is transmitted from a power
cable when 20 kW electric power is station to a town by a transmission cables
transmitted through a cable with with a total resistance of 50 Ω. If the power
resistance of 1.5 Ω at a voltage of station generates 8 MW of power, calculate
a) 200 V the power loss in the cables if power is
b) 10 kV. transmitted at a voltage of
a) 80 kV
Ans : b) 400 kV
a) 15 kW
b) 6 W
Ans :
a) 0.5 MW
b) 20 kW

78
National Grid Network
1. National Grid Network is a 132 kV
network system of high 25 kV
voltages cables which
connects all the power
stations in the country to the
consumers.
2. In Malaysia, electricity is
generated at 11 kV – 33 kV at
the power station. It is then
stepped up in a transformer to
132 kV before it is sent to the Heavy Industries
grid network. 33 kV
3. The purpose of increasing the Light Industries
voltage to 132 kV is to lower 11 kV
the current flowing through Domestic
the grid, and this reducing 240 V
power loss during
transmission.
4. The high voltage in the grid is
subsequently reduced by sub Offices
station transformers for 415 V
distribution to local users.
5. Heavy industries will be supplied with power at 33 kV. Light industries will be supplied with
power at 11 kV. Offices will be supplied with power at 415 V while domestic users will be
supplied with power at 240 V
79
 The grid network also enables less efficient
If a particular station breaks stations to be shut down at off-peak period,
down or is shut down for 2
thereby reducing the overall cost of
1 maintenance work, the other generation and transmission.
stations can supply electrical
energy to the affected area.

4
Power stations in areas
Importance of the where the demand is low
National Grid can supply electricity to
areas where the demand
Network is high.

3
Cost of generation of electricity is Power stations can be located
reduced because high voltage 5 outside city limits so that air and
transmission reduces the current environmental pollution can be
flowing through the cables and reduced.
hence reduces power loss in the
cables.
80
 Alternating Overhead or underground?
current, a.c
1. High voltage cables are the cheapest way
of sending power over long distances.
1. An alternating current is used
2. However, to prevent sparking, the only
in the transmission of
effective way of insulating the cables is to
electrical energy because its
keep huge air spaces around them
voltage can be easily
3. The cable have to be suspended from
increased or decreased with
pylons.
transformers.
2. A transformer cannot function
with a direct current
Transmission
issues

High voltage or
low voltage? Charge leakage
between the cables and the earth
Electrical power is transmitted at a high
voltage so that 1. To prevent charge leakage, the aluminium
• The current in the cables is smaller cables are supported by high metal pylons.
• The loss of power due to heating of the 2. The metal support of the pylon is earthed so
cables is minimized. that it is safe to workers and the public who
come into contact with them.
81
 Theft
Danger of being struck by
Stricter laws should be enforced light aircraft
to deter thieves from stealing Lights and special markers must be
the aluminium cables. attached to the pylons.

Transmission
issues

Cost of cables
Danger of being struck by lightning
1. Copper cables have low resistance
but are of high cost 1. The pylons carry lightning conductors
2. Aluminium cables are usually used as that are properly fixed into the ground
they are light, have low resistance 2. The cables are properly fixed with
and cost less. porcelain support so that the cables do
not touch the pylons.

82
Non-renewable sources of Renewable energy sources
energy such as crude oil, are those which originate
coal and natural gases are from the sun or the earth
fast depleting. Alternatives and will last as long as the
must be found to replace Solar System itself. From the sun: solar panels, solar cells,
such sources to ensure biomass, wind and wave energy,
continuous supply of 3 hydroelectric power
2
power in the future.
From the earth: geothermal
1 4
energy, energy from the tides.

Renewable sources
Importance of 5 of energy do not
renewable energy pollute the
environment.

“ Any new fact or insight that I may have found

has not seemed to me as a 'discovery' of
mine, but
. rather something that has always
been there and that I had chanced to pick up

”
P. V. Subrahmanyan
Chandrasekhar
(1910 - 1995) 83
Effects on the environment caused by the use of various sources to generate electricity

Energy
Advantages Disadvantages
resource
Hydro 1. Renewable energy 1. Building of dams can upset the
2. Water is freely available in large balance of the ecosystem
quantities 2. Not suitable in areas where
3. Clean and does not pollute the natural disasters such as
environment earthquakes may occur
4. Water stored in dams can be used 3. Not suitable in flat and dry
to irrigate farms regions.
5. Dams can be used to control
floods Dams can be promoted as
recreational centre

Oil and natural 1. At present it is still available in 1. Non-renewable energy

gas large quantities 2. Discharges harmful gases that
2. Can be transported to the location can pollute the environment
where it is to be used 3. High cost

Coal 1. Plenty of resources available for 1. Non-renewable energy

up to 200 years 2. Discharges harmful gases that
2. Can be transported to the location can pollute the environment
where it is to be used

84
 Energy
Advantages Disadvantages
resource

Nuclear 1. A small amount uranium can 1. High cost of building

release a large quantity of energy 2. Waste in the form of used fuel rods
2. Minimum discharge of carbon which are very hot and highly
dioxide radioactive
3. Reactor in nuclear power stations 3. Hot water discharged causes thermal
can be used to produce useful pollution to the environment
radioisotopes to be used in 4. Risk of accidents which may lead to the
industry, medicine and agriculture leakage of large amounts of radioactive
substances to the environment.

Biomass 1. Renewable energy 1. Requires large storage space far from

2. Reduces problem of disposal of human population if the biomass is
organic waste animal dung or sewage.

Wind 1. Renewable energy 1. Requires many windmills which cover a

2. Clean and does not pollute larger area
environment 2. Generates high level of noise

“I fear not the man who has practiced 10,000 kicks

once, but I fear the man who has practiced one kick
10,000 times.”
– Bruce Lee
85