MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

• Strength of materials depends on its ability to sustain load without

undue DEFORMATION and FAILURE
• Strength of material is a measure of STRESS while deformation is a
measure of STRAIN
• Many emerging technologies today focused primarily on the
mechanical properties of the materials used.
• For example, in aircraft manufacturing, aluminum alloys or carbon-
reinforced composites used for aircraft components must be light
weight, strong, and able to withstand cyclic mechanical loading for a
long and predictable period of time.
• Steels used in the construction of structures such as buildings and
bridges must have adequate strength so that these structures can be
built without compromising safety.
• The plastics used for manufacturing pipes, valves, flooring, also
must have adequate mechanical strength.
Solid Mechanics-I 1 Stress-strain Relationship
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
• Similarly, performance of baseballs, cricket-bats, and other sports
equipment depends not only on strength and weight of materials
used, but also on their ability to perform under “impact” loading.
• Also, mechanical properties of the material play an important role
in many applications where the primary function is electrical,
magnetic, optical, or biological.
• For example, an optical fiber must have a certain level of strength
to withstand the stresses encountered in its application.
• A biocompatible titanium alloy used for a bone implant must have
enough strength and toughness to survive in the human body for
many years without failure.
• A scratch-resistant coating on optical lenses must resist mechanical
abrasion.

Solid Mechanics-I 2 Stress-strain Relationship

 MECHANICAL Properties
• First step in selection process requires an analysis of material’s
application to determine its most important characteristics.
 Should it be strong, stiff, or ductile?
 Will it be subjected to an application involving high stress or
sudden intense force?
 Does it have Microstructural changes due to temperature?
 Cyclic nature of stresses applied is important or not?
 Chemical changes due to oxidation, corrosion, or erosion
have major impact or not?
 Effect of possible defects introduced during machining
operations (e.g., grinding, welding, cutting, etc.) …
 Other factors can also have a major effect on the mechanical
behavior of materials.

Solid Mechanics-I Stress-strain

3 Relationship
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
• Mechanical properties are usually determined by following tests:
 Tensile Test
 Compression Test
 Impact Test
 Torsional Test
 Bending Test
• All of the above tests are conducting using standard method that
defines in general
 Geometry of Specimen
 Load rates
 Boundary conditions etc
• Different standards like ASTM (American Society for testing
materials), ISO (International Standard Organization), EN
(European Standards), JIS (Japanese Industrial Standards)
Solid Mechanics-I Stress-strain
4 Relationship
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
• ASTM E8-09: Standard Test Methods for Tension Testing of
Metallic Materials
• ASTM E9 - 09(2018) : Standard Test Methods of Compression
Testing of Metallic Materials at Room Temperature
• ASTM E23 - Standard Test Methods for Notched Bar Impact
Testing of Metallic Materials
• ASTM A938 - 07(2013) Standard Test Method for Torsion Testing
of Wire
• ASTM E290 -  Standard Test Methods for Bend Testing of Material
for Ductility

Solid Mechanics-I Stress-strain

5 Relationship
 TENSILE TESTING

Universal Testing Machine (UTM)

6
 TENSILE TESTING

Standard Tensile Specimen

7
 STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIP
• Load bearing capability without excessive deformation is a material
property, determined experimentally either by tension or
compression tests using STANDARD SPECIMEN
•Standard specimen has
 Constant cross-section of test section with enlarge ends (to avoid
failure at grips)
 Two marks placed on the specimen. Distance between these
marks is termed as GAUGE LENGTH (used in strain calculations)
• Load and elongation is record frequently. Extension is determined
using mechanical or optical device known as EXTENSOMETER (or
directly strain using electrical-resistance strain gauge)

Solid Mechanics-I 8 Stress-strain Relationship

9
TENSILE TESTING

10
 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
• Mechanical properties used in different engineering applications
are determined from standard tensile (compression) testing on
UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE
• Test consists of gradually loading standard specimen and noting
the corresponding LOAD-EXTENSION VALUES until the specimen
FRACTURE. This curve is known as STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
• Different tensile/compressive tests for particular material gives
almost similar properties but not yields exactly same stress-strain
curve because of
Materials composition (inhomogeneous)
Microscopic imperfection
Manufacturing operations
Rate of loading
Temperature
Solid Mechanics-I 11 Stress-strain Relationship
 COMPRESSION TESTING

Universal Testing Machine (UTM) with Compression fixture

Aluminum Hot Rolled

Alloy Steel

Untested Gray Cast

Specimen Iron 12
 IMPACT TESTING

Schematic of Impact Testing Methods

with specimen geometry Brittle Failure Ductile Failure
a) Charpy b) Izod
13 Fracture Specimen of Charpy Impact Test
STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM UNDER TENSION

14
DUCTILE MATERIAL FAILURE UNDER TENSILE LOAD

15
 Significance of Dislocations

Permanent deformation in metals is due to the movement of dislocations

Dislocations’ interactions mainly governs the hardening of metals

Point
defects

16
Line defects or Dislocations

Fixed plane
Shearing plane

17
 Dislocations’ interactions

• Annihilation
• Interlocking
• Glide
• Pileup …

18
19
 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
• When stress is determined using initial (original) area, stress is
termed as NOMINAL OR ENGINEERING STRESS and corresponding
curve is known as ENGINEERING STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
• Stress-strain curve has two main regions; ELASTIC and PLASTIC
 In elastic region, material regain its initial state without
permanent deformation and curve is mostly straight line. In
elastic region, shape change is a result of stretching of
interatomic bonds, and no dislocation motion occurs.
 In elastic region stress is proportional to strain upto a point
where straight line ends and is known as PROPORTIONAL
LIMIT. Hooke’s Law is applied till this point.
 If stress is slightly exceeds to the proportional limit, the curve
tends to bend and flatten out reaches ELASTIC LIMIT

Solid Mechanics-I 20 Stress-strain Relationship

 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
• Stress beyond elastic limit will not return to its original state.
• Slight increase in stress above the elastic limit will result in a
breakdown of the material and cause it to deform permanently. This
behavior is termed as YIELDING
• In yielding, deformation occurs usually at constant stress and it is
often referred as PERFECTLY PLASTIC
• Stress at the beginning of yielding is referred as YIELD POINT
• Low carbon steel possesses upper and lower yield points. The
stress-strain curve for certain low-carbon steels display the yield
point phenomenon. Material is expected to plastically deform at low
stress; however, small interstitial atoms clustered around the
dislocations interfere with slip and raise the yield point to higher
stress. The dislocation slips only after reaches the higher stress.
After slip begins, dislocations move away from clusters of small
atoms and continue to move very rapidly at the lower stress.
Solid Mechanics-I 21 Stress-strain Relationship
 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
• Materials in which yield point is not well-defined, 0.2% OFFSET
METHOD is used to determine the yield strength
•After yielding, increase in load will result in STRAIN HARDENING.
For ductile materials when loaded-than-unloaded in plastic region,
elastic strain is recovered but PLASTIC STRAIN remains in the
material known as PERMANENT SET. Such material is termed as
strain hardened. Strain hardening made material harder (increase
strength with decrease in its ductility)
• If material is loaded beyond its yield point and then unloaded,
permanent set can be seen in the figure. If specimen is reloaded,
stress-strain curve started at the same point where it was ended.
• New stress-strain curve shows higher yield point because of strain
hardening
• Material has now greater elastic region but it has lesser ductility
and smaller plastic region
Solid Mechanics-I 22 Stress-strain Relationship
STRAIN HARDENING

23
 • After yielding, specimen elongates and usually its cross-section
reduces in a uniform manner. But just after the ultimate stress,
cross-section area will begin to decrease in a localized region and
this phenomenon is known as NECKING
DUCTILE MATERIALS
• Any material subjected to large strains before it fractures is called
a DUCTILE MATERIAL
• Ductility of a material is specified either by
 Percent elongation = Lf - Lo
Lo
 Percent reduction in area = Ao - Af
Ao
Solid Mechanics-I 24 Stress-strain Relationship
 DUCTILE FRACTURE
• Ductile fracture normally occurs in a transgranular manner
(through the grains) in metals that have good ductility and
toughness.
• Significant amount of deformation
including necking is observed in
the failed component.
• Ductile fractures are usually caused
by simple overloads, or by high
stresses induced in material.
• In tensile test, ductile fracture
begins with the nucleation, growth,
and coalescence of microvoids near
the center of the test bar.

25
 DUCTILE FRACTURE
• Microvoids form when a high stress causes separation of the
metal at grain boundaries or interfaces between the metal and
small impurity particles.
• As the local stress increases, the microvoids grow and coalesce
into larger cavities.
• Eventually, the metal-to-metal contact area is too small to support
the load and fracture occurs.
• Deformation by slip also contributes to the ductile fracture of a
metal.
• Slip occurs when the resolved shear stress reaches the critical
value and is highest at a 45° angle to the applied tensile load.
• In thick metal sections, necking is evident where a significant
portion of the fracture surface having a flat face where microvoids
first nucleated and coalesced. It also contain a small shear lip,
where the fracture surface is at 45° angle to the applied stress.
26
 DUCTILE FRACTURE
• The shear lip, indicating that slip
occurred, gives the fracture a cup
and cone appearance.
• Examination of the fracture surface
using SEM reveals a dimpled
surface. The dimples are traces of
the microvoids produced during
fracture.
• Normally, these microvoids are
round, or equiaxed, when a normal
tensile stress produces the failure
however, on the shear lip, the
dimples are oval-shaped, or
elongated, with the ovals pointing
Oval Dimples
toward the origin of the fracture.
27
 Ductile fracture

These SEM micrographs of solid expandable tubular material are taken at Sultan
Qaboos University, Oman 28
 DUCTILE FRACTURE

• In a thin plate, less necking is observed and the entire fracture

surface may be a shear face. Microscopic examination of the fracture
surface shows elongated dimples rather than equiaxed dimples,
indicating a greater proportion of 45° slip than in thicker metals.

29
 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM

Solid Mechanics-I 30 Stress-strain Relationship

 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM

Solid Mechanics-I 31 Stress-strain Relationship

 BRITTLE FRACTURE
• Brittle fracture occurs in high-strength metals and alloys or
metals and alloys with poor ductility and toughness.
• Even metals that are normally ductile may fail in a brittle manner
at low temperatures, in thick sections, at high strain rates (such as
impact), or when flaws play an important role.
• Brittle fractures are frequently observed when impact, rather than
overload, causes failure.
• In brittle fracture, little or no plastic deformation is required.
Initiation of the crack normally occurs at small flaws, which cause
a concentration of stress.
• The crack may move at a rate approaching the velocity of sound
in the metal.
• Normally, the crack propagates most easily along specific
crystallographic planes, often the {100} planes, by cleavage. In
some cases, however, the crack may take an intergranular (along
the grain boundaries) path. 
32
 BRITTLE FRACTURE
• Brittle fracture can be identified by observing the features on the
failed surface.
• Normally, the fracture surface is flat and perpendicular to the
applied stress in a tensile test.
• If failure occurs by cleavage, each fractured grain is flat and
differently oriented, giving a crystalline or “rock candy” appearance
to the fracture surface (Figure-a).
• Another common fracture feature is the Chevron pattern produced
by separate crack fronts propagating at different levels in the
material (Figure-b).

(b)

(a) 33
Brittle fracture

34
 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
BRITTLE MATERIALS
• Materials that exhibit little or no yielding before failure is referred
as BRITTLE MATERIAL. Gray cast iron is an example of brittle material

Solid Mechanics-I 35 Stress-strain Relationship

 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM

Solid Mechanics-I 36 Stress-strain Relationship

 TRUE STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
• TRUE STRESS is determined using instantaneous (actual) area and
corresponding diagram is termed as TRUE STRESS-STRAIN
CURVE
• True stress (σT):
For volume consistency,

• True strain (εT):

37
 Note: For given stress, aluminum
deforms elastically three times as much
as does steel (i.e., elastic modulus of
aluminum is about three times lower
38 than steel).
39
 HOOKE’S LAW
• Most engineering materials exhibit linear stress-strain relationship
within elastic region (till proportional limit). This fact is known as
HOOKE’S LAW
• σ = Eε (where E is Young’s modulus)
• Modulus of elasticity represents the slope of straight line
• Modulus of elasticity is a mechanical property that indicates the
stiffness of a material
• Materials that are very stiff, have large values of E, such as steel
(200 GPa) and vulcanized rubbers are soft having low values of E (0.7
MPa)
• From stress-strain diagram of mild steel
E = 240 (MPa)/0.0012 = 200 GPa

Solid Mechanics-I 40 Stress-strain Relationship

 STRAIN ENERGY
• Under external loading material deforms and tends to store energy
internally throughout its volume. This energy is related to strain,
hence termed as strain energy
• Since ∆F = σ(∆x ∆y) and displacement = ε ∆z
• Also, force started from zero value to maximum
work done on the element is by average force
• Hence force = ½ ∆F
• Strain energy (∆U) = force * displacement
• ∆U = ½ σ ε ∆V
• Also, u (strain energy per unit volume)= ½ σ ε
• For linear elastic behavior (obeying Hooke’s law)
u = ½ σ2/E
Solid Mechanics-I 41 Stress-strain Relationship
 • Modulus of resilience can be calculated using following
relationship:
ur = ½ σpl2/E

Solid Mechanics-I 42 Stress-strain Relationship

43
44
45
 Problem 1 (3-4)
Tensile test was performed on steel specimen having an original
diameter 0.503 in and gauge length of 200 in. Data is given in the
table. Determine a) Stress-strain curve b) Young’s modulus c Yield
point d) Ultimate stress e) Fracture stress
Force (Ksi) Elongation (in)
0 0
1.5 0.0005
4.6 0.0015
8 0.0025
11 0.0035
11.8 0.005
11.8 0.008
12 0.02
16.6 0.04
20 0.1
21.5 0.28
19.5 0.4
18.5 0.46
Solid Mechanics-I 46 Stress-strain Relationship
 Solution:
Stress (Ksi) Strain
0 0
7.549068948 0.0000025
23.15047811 0.0000075
40.26170106 0.0000125
55.35983895 0.0000175
59.38600906 0.000025
59.38600906 0.00004
60.39255159 0.0001
83.54302969 0.0002
100.6542526 0.0005
108.2033216 0.0014
98.13789633 0.002
93.10518369 0.0023

Solid Mechanics-I 47 Stress-strain Relationship

 Problem 2

Solid Mechanics-I Stress-strain

48 Relationship
Solid Mechanics-I Stress-strain
49 Relationship
 Problem 3

Solid Mechanics-I Stress-strain

50 Relationship
Solid Mechanics-I Stress-strain
51 Relationship
Solid Mechanics-I Stress-strain
52 Relationship
 SHEAR STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM

Solid Mechanics-I 53 Stress-strain Relationship

 SHEAR STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM

Solid Mechanics-I 54 Stress-strain Relationship

 SHEAR STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM

Solid Mechanics-I 55 Stress-strain Relationship

 POISSON’S RATIO
• In all engineering materials, the elongation produced by an axial
tensile force P in the direction of the force is accompanied by a
contraction in transverse direction
• All materials considered will be assumed to be both homogeneous
and isotropic, i.e., their mechanical properties will be assumed
independent of both position and direction
• It follows that the strain must have the same value for any
transverse direction, referred to as the lateral strain
• Poisson’s ratio is an important constant for a given material and is
defined as:

Solid Mechanics-I 56 Stress-strain Relationship

 POISSON’S RATIO
• Consider an element of material subjected to uniaxial stress σx the
corresponding strain system is shown.

TENSION

COMPRESSION

• In x-direction the strain is εx and in y and z-directions the strains are

–νεy and –νεz, respectively.
• Using Hooke’s law (σ=Eε), , and
Solid Mechanics-I 57 Stress-strain Relationship
 POISSON’S RATIO
• Element subjected to triaxial stresses σx, σy, and σz, total strain in x-
direction is therefore composed of a strain due to σx, and lateral
strains due to σy and σz.

• Similarly,

Solid Mechanics-I 58 Stress-strain Relationship

 POISSON’S RATIO
• Equations giving strains can be solved to determine stress
components:

• Similarly,

• Lame constant, ,
• Shear Modulus, Bulk Modulus,
Plane stress
• In many practical situations stress
component in z-direction is zero
and is referred as plane stress
,

Solid Mechanics-I 59 Stress-strain Relationship

 POISSON’S RATIO

Plane strain
• If the strain in z-direction is zero (), this referred to a plane strain
condition

• Zero strain does not mean zero stress in that direction

• Owing to the Poisson’s ratio effect, changes will occur in z-direction
• To keep strain zero in z-direction, it is necessary to have stress in the
z-direction

Solid Mechanics-I 60 Stress-strain Relationship

 POISSON’S RATIO

Solid Mechanics-I 61 Stress-strain Relationship

 POISSON’S RATIO

Solid Mechanics-I 62 Stress-strain Relationship

 POISSON’S RATIO

Problem 3-33
Plug has diameter of 30mm and fits within a rigid sleeve having an
inner diameter of 32mm. Both are 50mm long. Determine the axial
pressure that must be applied at the top of plug to cause it contact the
sides of sleeve. Also, how far must the plug be compressed downward
to do this? Young’s modulus is 5MPa and Poisson’s ratio is 0.45.

Solution: PLUG
Plug should be compressed with the
particular amount of load in order to
touch the sleeve. That load is used to
determine the axial pressure. Sleeve

Solid Mechanics-I 63 Stress-strain Relationship

 POISSON’S RATIO
That load will do the compression and resulted in lateral strain, which
can be calculated using,

Answer
L

Answer

Solid Mechanics-I 64 Stress-strain Relationship