CHAPTER-4

DETERMINATION OF STATE
OF DAMAGE
 The state of damage of machinery or one of its elements is the
undesired deviation from the required state fixed in the design
procedures.
 Knowledge of the state of damage of a component in connection
with the determination of the survival probability is essential for
setting the date and kind of maintenance measures to be taken.
 The state of damage of equipment depends on: -
 Kind and condition of damage, and
 Duration and condition of operation of equipment
 Determination of the state of damage is of technical diagnostics
and maintenance technique.
 Technical diagnostics is the determination of the technical state
or state of damage of equipment, evaluation of the state and
collection for deciding the date and kind of maintenance.
 This is normally done without disassembling while the
equipment is in operation.
 As shown in above, the means of production itself, the signals
production by the means of production, the measuring device and
measured quantities are all influenced by the environment which is
a source of error.
 Hence, the usefulness of the results has to be weighed carefully and
decisions made have to be supported by experience and good
judgment.
Measuring values for the state of damage
 The state of damage is done by using different measuring values taken from damage.
 Direct measured quantities, and
 Indirect measured quantities

Direct measured quantities

 The direct measuring technique determines the difference
between the initial state and the state after wear process. The
measurement taken can be direct linear, volumetric or mass
quantities.
 These measured quantities can be absolute or to duration of operation.
 Absolute measurement give the amount wear as an average worn out thickness.
 Related measurement gives amount of wear per unit time of operation .
 If the wear is not constant over a surface, the measurement
should be done in different planes with different orientations.
 Direct measurement is usually done after disassembly and some
times without disassembling.
Indirect measuring quantities
 During the operation a machine or parts of it, produce certain
signals which are related to the state of operation of the machine.
 These signals, which are known as diagnostic parameters, if
properly analyzed provide some information regarding the state of
the machine.
 It should be noted that influence from the operating condition and
environment introduces errors in the measured results.
Methods of Condition Monitoring
 Most techniques of condition monitoring mount to the systematic
application of commonly accepted methods of fault diagnosis.
 This technique is classified as on-load or off-loads monitoring
techniques.
On–load monitoring techniques
 On-load monitoring techniques are mostly carried out without interruption of
operation of the unit. These techniques include:
 Visual, aural and tactile inspection of accessible components
 Temperature monitoring
 Lubricant monitoring
 Leak detection
 Vibration monitoring/sound monitoring
 Corrosion monitoring
Off – load monitoring techniques
 Off- load monitoring techniques require shutdown of the unit. These include:
 Visual, aural and tactile inspection of normally inaccessible or moving parts
 Crack detection
 Leak detection
 Vibration testing
 Corrosion monitoring
Condition monitoring techniques
 Most failure gives some warning before they occur which is called
potential failure.
 Potential failure is defined as an identifiable physical condition
which indicates that a functional failure is either about to occur or
it is in the process of occurring.
 A functional failure is defined as the inability of equipment in
meeting a specified performance standard.
 Techniques of detecting potential failures are known as on-
condition maintenance task. This is so because equipment is left in
service, the condition that they meet specified performance
standards.
Potential Failures and on-condition maintenance
 If evidence can be found that some component/equipment is the
final stage of failure, it may be possible to take action to prevent
complete failure and/or its consequences.
 The P-F curve is employed to show what happens in the final stages
of failures.
 Where failure in the equipment starts to occurs
 Where equipment condition deteriorates to the point at which the failure can be
detected
 Where the equipment has failed indication failure
 The P-F interval is the interval between the occurrence of a
potential failure and its deterioration into functional failure and
that interval is the warning Period, lead time to failure or failure
development period.
 On-condition tasks entail checking for potential failures so that
action can be taken to prevent functional failure or to avoid the
consequences of the functional failure and this is known as
predictive maintenance or condition-based maintenance.
 The derivation for P1 from the normal is smaller and this requires
sensitive monitoring techniques and equipment, but gives a longer
P1-F interval.
 The larger deviation for P2 from normal results in a shorter P2-F
interval. But the monitoring equipment/techniques need not be as
sensitive as in the P1 case.
Categories of Condition Monitoring Techniques
 Condition monitoring techniques are designed to detect specific
symptoms which are related to the state of damage of the
equipment. The monitoring techniques are classified according to
the symptoms monitored. These can be classified as follows.
Dynamic monitoring
 Dynamic monitoring detects potential which cause emission of
abnormal energy in the form of wave such as vibration and noise.
 Equipment which contains parts that vibrate are monitored
dynamically and done by measuring how much the system
vibrates.
 There are various techniques that belong to this category, examples
 Broadband vibration analysis
(Change in vibration characteristics are monitored)
 Constant bandwidth analysis (Narrow Band)
(Change in vibration characteristics are monitored by using accelerometers)
Cont…
 Real time analysis
(Measurement of vibration signals: shock analysis)
 Ultrasonic analysis
(Change in sound pattern are monitored)
Particle Monitoring
 Particle monitoring detects potential failures which cause particles
of different size and shapes to be released into the environment in
which the component is operating; these include wear and
corrosion particles. Among the various particle monitoring
techniques the following are some examples.
 Ferro-graph
(Wear and Corrosion particles are monitored by taking a representative sample of oil)
 Real time ferromagnetic sensors
 Graded filtration
 Sedimentation
Chemical Monitoring
 Chemical monitoring detects potential failures which cause
traceable quantities of chemical elements to be released in to the
environment. This technique is used to detect elements in the
lubricating which indicate occurrence of potential failure
elsewhere in the system. They are employed to detect wear,
corrosion, leakage. Some of the techniques are listed below.
 Atomic emission spectroscopy
 X- ray fluorescence spectroscopy
 Infrared spectroscopy
 Electro –chemical corrosion monitoring
 Exhaust emission analyzers
 Color indicator titration
Physical effects monitoring
 Physical effects monitoring includes changes in the physical
appearance or structure of equipment which can be detected
directly. The monitoring techniques involve detect potential
failures in the form of cracks, wear, corrosion etc. some of the
techniques employed are: -
 Liquid dye penetrants
 Magnetic particle inspection
 Ultrasonic techniques
 X-ray-radiography
 Light probes
 Deep–probe endoscope
 Oil odor
 Strain gauge
 Viscosity monitoring
Temperature monitoring
 These techniques look for potential failures which cause rise in
temperature of an equipment itself. Monitoring techniques
included in here are
 Infrared scanning
 Temperature indicating painting
Electrical Effects Monitoring
 These techniques look for changes-in resistance, conductivity, etc.
Electrical effects monitoring techniques includes the following.
 Electrical resistance monitoring
 Potential monitoring
 Power factor testing
 Breaker timing testing
General Purpose Monitoring Techniques
 Thermal, lubricant and vibration monitoring techniques are considered to
be general purpose monitoring techniques. In each of these parameter
being monitored contains.
Lubricant Monitoring
 The oil which circulate through a machine carries with it evidence of the
condition of parts encountered. Examination of the oil and any particles it
has carried with it allows monitoring of the machine on-load or at shut-
down.
 Lubricant examination can cover debris deposited, debris in suspension or
condition of oil.
 Debris deposited are the larger particles carried along by the lubricant
which can be collected by filters or magnetic collectors. Examination of
the debris under the microscope to establish size and shape provides good
information regarding the state of damage of the machine.
 Debris in suspension are the smaller particles collected by the lubricant
which remain in suspension. The examination of the debris in suspension
gives the earliest warning of component damage.
Cont…
Shape of debris collected caries information as to the wear mechanism taking place.
 Normal shape of wear particles tends to be flat
 Cutting or abrasive wear results in spiral shaped debris
 Surface fatigue failures produce larger angular particles
Condition of used oil itself can be examined for indication of other malfunctions.
 Foaming of oil- cause is excessive churning or passage under pressure
through restriction. Action to be taking; checking the system.
 Darkened color of oil is caused by oxidation of oil, excess temperature,
combustion or other chemical products reacting with the oil used.
Malfunction that can be detected by lubricant monitoring are the following.
 Damage of transmission components like gears, shafts, bearings, etc.
 Blockage of ducts, pipes, etc.
Thermal Monitoring
 Monitoring the temperature of components in a machine is
undertaken for one of three purposes:
 To enable the temp. of a process to be controlled manually or to check that
it is being controlled properly.
 To detect a change or increase in heat generation due to some malfunction
such as damage of bearings.
 To detect a change in the heat transmitted through and out of the body of
the machine caused by a change in some component such as failed coolant
circulation or ash build up in a boiler.
 Temperature monitoring devices are diverse and can be classified
as contact sensors, non- contact sensor temperature points, pellets
(pyrometers).
 Prime function of temperature monitoring is checking the system
that the controls are working properly and some range of general
faults can also be detected by thermal monitoring
Cont…
 The f/f are possible areas where thermal monitoring is applied.
 Bearing damage which result in heat generation and heating of
the bearing unit and other units that come in contact with the
bearing unit.
 Failure of coolant or lubrication can be detected by a
temperature rise of appropriate bodies; such failures could
result from pump failure, drive fault, blockage in piping, valves
or filter, or damaged heat exchanger.
 Incorrect heat generation like in internal combustion engines.
 Build-up of unwanted materials such as sediments is pipe, ash
in in boiler or ducts, etc.
 Damage of insulating materials.
 Faults of electric components.
Vibration/noise Monitoring
 Changes in noise or vibration characteristics are indicative of
trouble. The causes of vibration are unbalanced rotating and
reciprocating parts, looseness in the fit between components,
deflection of load carrying members, misalignment, damages in
transmission component, etc.
 The equipment employed are vibro-meter and accelerometers of
wide variety.
 The possible faults that can be detected by vibration monitoring are:
 Wear or failure of bearings
 Presence of unbalance in moving parts
 Change in clearances
 Cracks in shafts and other moving components subjected to cyclic loads.
EN
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