Chapter 9

The Endocrine
System

Lecture Presentation by
Patty Bostwick-Taylor
Florence-Darlington Technical College

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The Endocrine System

▪ Second controlling system of the body

▪ Nervous system is the fast-control system
▪ Uses chemical messengers (hormones) that are
released into the blood
▪ Hormones control several major processes
▪ Reproduction
▪ Growth and development
▪ Mobilization of body defenses
▪ Maintenance of much of homeostasis
▪ Regulation of metabolism

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 The Endocrine System

▪ Hormones are produced by specialized cells

▪ Cells secrete hormones into extracellular fluids
▪ Blood transfers hormones to target sites
▪ These hormones regulate the activity of other cells
▪ Endocrinology is the scientific study of hormones
and endocrine organs

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 The Chemistry of Hormones

▪ Hormones are classified chemically as:

▪ Amino acid–based, which includes:
▪ Proteins
▪ Peptides
▪ Amines
▪ Steroids—made from cholesterol
▪ Prostaglandins—made from highly active lipids that act
as local hormones

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 Hormone Action

▪ Hormones affect only certain tissues or organs

(target cells or target organs)
▪ Target cells must have specific protein receptors
▪ Hormone binding alters cellular activity

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 Hormone Action

▪ Hormones arouse cells or alter cellular activity

▪ Typically, one or more of the following occurs:
1. Change plasma membrane permeability or
membrane potential by opening or closing ion
channels
2. Activate or inactivate enzymes
3. Stimulate or inhibit cell division
4. Promote or inhibit secretion of a product
5. Turn on or turn off transcription of certain genes

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 Hormone Action

▪ Hormones act by two mechanisms

1. Direct gene activation
▪ Used by steroid hormones and thyroid hormone
2. Second-messenger system
▪ Used by protein and peptide hormones

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 Hormone Action

▪ Direct gene activation

1. Steroid hormones diffuse through the plasma
membrane of target cells
2. Once inside the cell, the hormone enters the nucleus
3. Then, the hormone binds to a specific protein within
the nucleus
4. Hormone-receptor complex binds to specific sites on
the cell’s DNA
5. Certain genes are activated to transcribe messenger
RNA
6. New proteins are synthesized

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Figure 9.1a Mechanisms of hormone action. Slide 1

Steroid Cytoplasm Nucleus

hormone Receptor
1 2 protein
3
Hormone-receptor
complex 4

DNA

mRNA
5
New
protein

Plasma
membrane
of target
cell 6

(a) Direct gene activation

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 Hormone Action

▪ Second-messenger system
1. Hormone (first messenger) binds to a membrane
receptor
2. Activated receptor sets off a series of reactions that
activates an enzyme
3. Enzyme catalyzes a reaction that produces a second-
messenger molecule (such as cyclic AMP, known as
cAMP)
4. Oversees additional intracellular changes to promote
a specific response in the target cell

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Figure 9.1b Mechanisms of hormone action. Slide 1

Cytoplasm
Hormone (first
messenger)
Enzyme
ATP

1 2 3

Second
cAMP
messenger

4
Receptor
protein
Effect on cellular function,
such as glycogen
Plasma breakdown
membrane
of target cell

(b) Second-messenger system

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Figure 9.1b Mechanisms of hormone action. Slide 5

Cytoplasm
Hormone (first
messenger)
Enzyme
ATP

1 2 3

Second
cAMP
messenger

4
Receptor
protein
Effect on cellular function,
such as glycogen
Plasma breakdown
membrane
of target cell

(b) Second-messenger system

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 Stimuli for Control of Hormone Release

▪ Hormone levels in the blood are maintained

mostly by negative feedback
▪ A stimulus or low hormone levels in the blood
trigger the release of more hormone
▪ Hormone release stops once an appropriate level
in the blood is reached

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 Stimuli for Control of Hormone Release

▪ The stimuli that activate endocrine glands fall into

three major categories
1. Hormonal
2. Humoral
3. Neural

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 Stimuli for Control of Hormone Release

▪ Hormonal stimuli
▪ Most common category of
stimulus
▪ Endocrine organs are
activated by other
hormones
▪ Example:
▪ Hormones of the
hypothalamus stimulate
the anterior pituitary to
secrete its hormones

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 Stimuli for Control of Hormone Release

▪ Humoral stimuli
▪ Changing blood levels of certain
ions and nutrients stimulate
hormone release
▪ Humoral indicates various body
fluids, such as blood and bile
▪ Examples:
▪ Parathyroid hormone and
calcitonin are produced in
response to changing levels of
blood calcium levels
▪ Insulin is produced in response
to changing levels of blood
glucose levels

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 Stimuli for Control of Hormone
Release

▪ Neural stimuli
▪ Nerve fibers stimulate
hormone release
▪ Most are under the control
of the sympathetic nervous
system
▪ Examples:
▪ Sympathetic stimulation of
the adrenal medulla to
release epinephrine and
norepinephrine

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 The Major Endocrine Organs

▪ Hypothalamus
▪ Pituitary gland
▪ Pineal gland
▪ Thyroid gland
▪ Parathyroid glands
▪ Thymus
▪ Adrenal glands
▪ Pancreas
▪ Gonads (testes and ovaries)

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 The Major Endocrine Organs

▪ Some glands have purely endocrine functions

▪ Anterior pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, parathyroids
▪ Endocrine glands are ductless glands
▪ Hormones are released directly into blood or
lymph
▪ Other glands are mixed glands, with both
endocrine and exocrine functions (pancreas,
gonads)

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 Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus

▪ Pituitary gland
▪ Pea-sized gland that hangs by a stalk from the
hypothalamus in the brain
▪ Protected by the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone
▪ Has two functional lobes
▪ Anterior pituitary—glandular tissue
▪ Posterior pituitary—nervous tissue
▪ Often called the “master endocrine gland”

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 Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus

▪ Hypothalamus produces releasing hormones and

inhibiting hormones
▪ These hormones are released into portal circulation,
which connects hypothalamus to anterior pituitary
▪ Hypothalamus also makes two hormones:
oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone
▪ Carried to posterior pituitary via neurosecretory cells for
storage

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Figure 9.4 Hormones released by the posterior pituitary and their target organs.

Hypothalamic
neurosecretory
Optic cells
chiasma Hypothalamus

Axon
Arterial blood supply
terminals

Posterior lobe
Capillary bed

Venous drainage
Anterior lobe
of the pituitary

ADH Oxytocin

Kidney tubules Mammary glands

Uterine muscles
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 Hormones Regulated by the Hypothalamic/Pituitary

System
Hormone Pituitary Stimulating Hypothalamic Releasing
Hormone Hormone
Thyroid hormones Thyroid stimulating Thyrotropin-releasing
T4, T3 hormone (TSH) hormone (TRH)
Cortisol Adrenocorticotropin Corticotropin-releasing
hormone (ACTH) factor (CRF)
Estrogen or Follicle-stimulating Luteinizing hormone-
testosterone hormone (FSH), releasing hormone (LHRH)
Luteinizing hormone or gonadotropin- releasing
(LH) hormone (GnRH)
Insulinlike growth Growth hormone Growth hormone-releasing
factor-I (IGF-I) hormone (GHRH)

▪ Hypothalamus also secretes somatostatin – pituitary gland to stop the

release of growth hormone
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Figure 9.5 Hormones of the anterior pituitary and their major target organs.

Releasing hormones Hypothalamus

secreted into portal
circulation

Anterior pituitary Posterior pituitary

Hypophyseal
portal system
Adrenocorticotropic
Growth hormone (GH) hormone (ACTH)

Bones and muscles Prolactin (PRL) Follicle-stimulating Thyrotropic Adrenal cortex

hormone (FSH) hormone (TH)
and luteinizing
Mammary hormone (LH)
glands
Thyroid

Testes or ovaries

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 Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus

▪ Six anterior pituitary hormones

▪ Two hormones affect nonendocrine targets
1. Growth hormone
2. Prolactin
▪ Four are tropic hormones
1. Follicle-stimulating hormone
2. Luteinizing hormone
3. Thyrotropic hormone
4. Adrenocorticotropic hormone

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 Anterior Pituitary
Hormone Function
Growth Hormone • Stimulates bone growth and tissue
• Causes amino acids to be built into
proteins
• Causes fats to be broken down for a
source of energy
Prolactin Stimulates milk production in females
Gonadotropic hormones Control sexual function and
(1) Luteinizing hormone (LH) production of sex steroids, estrogen
(2) Follicle-stimulating hormone and progesterone
Thyroid-stimulating hormone Influences growth and activity of
(thyrotropic hormone) the thyroid gland
Adrenocorticotropic hormone Regulates endocrine activity of the
adrenal cortex

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 Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary

•Growth hormone (GH) disorders

•Pituitary dwarfism results from
hyposecretion of GH during childhood
•Gigantism results from hypersecretion of
GH during childhood
•Acromegaly results from hypersecretion of
GH during adulthood

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 Pituitary dwarf (left), Giant (center), Normal height woman (right)

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.5

 Hypothalamic
neurosecretory
Optic cells
chiasma Hypothalamus

Axon
Arterial blood supply
terminals

Posterior lobe
Capillary bed

Venous drainage
Anterior lobe
of the pituitary

ADH Oxytocin

Kidney tubules Mammary glands

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Uterine muscles Figure 9.6

 Posterior Pituitary (Hypothalamus)

Hormone Function
Oxytocin • Stimulates contractions of the
uterus during labor, sexual
relations, and breastfeeding
• Causes milk ejection in a nursing
woman
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) • Inhibits urine production by
promoting water reabsorption by
the kidneys
• Causes vasoconstriction (large
amounts) leading to increased
blood pressure. Also known as
vasopressin
Diabetes insipidus - Hyposecretion of ADH
* Continually thirsty and drink huge amounts of water.
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 Pineal Gland

▪ Hangs from the roof of the third ventricle of the

brain
▪ Secretes melatonin
▪ Believed to trigger the body’s sleep/wake cycle
▪ Believed to coordinate the hormones of fertility in
humans and to inhibit the reproductive system until
maturity occurs

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 Thyroid Gland

▪ Found at the base of the

throat, inferior to the Adam’s
apple
▪ Consists of two lobes and a
connecting isthmus
▪ Follicles are hollow
structures that store
colloidal material
▪ Produces two hormones
1. Thyroid hormone
2. Calcitonin

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 Thyroid Gland
Hormone Function
Thyroid hormone • Major metabolic hormone
• Controls rate of oxidation of glucose to supply
body heat and chemical energy
• Needed for tissue growth and development
• Composed of two active iodine-containing
hormones
Thyroxine (T4)—secreted by thyroid follicle
Triiodothyronine (T3)—conversion of T4 at
target tissues
Calcitonin • Decreases blood calcium levels by causing calcium
deposition on bone
• Antagonistic to parathyroid hormone
• Produced by parafollicular cells found between
the follicles
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 Thyroid Hormone Disorders

•Goiters
•Thyroid gland enlarges due to
lack of iodine
•Salt is iodized to prevent
goiters
•Cretinism
•Caused by hyposecretion of
thyroxine
•Results in dwarfism during
childhood

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 Thyroid Hormone Disorders

•Myxedema
•Caused by hypothyroidism in adults
•Results in physical and mental
sluggishness
•Graves’ disease
•Caused by hyperthyroidism
•Results in increased metabolism, heat
intolerance, rapid heartbeat, weight loss,
and exophthalmos

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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.9

 Parathyroid Glands

▪ Tiny masses on the posterior of the thyroid

▪ Secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH)
▪ Most important regulator of calcium ion (Ca2+)
homeostasis of the blood
▪ Stimulates osteoclasts to remove calcium from bone
▪ Hypercalcemic hormone (increases blood calcium
levels)
▪ Stimulates the kidneys and intestine to absorb more
calcium

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Figure 9.7 Hormonal control of the level of calcium ions in the blood.

Calcitonin
Calcitonin
stimulates
calcium salt
deposit in bone.

Thyroid gland
releases calcitonin.

Stimulus
Rising blood IMB
AL
Ca2+ levels AN
CE
Calcium homeostasis of blood:
BALANCE BALANCE
9–11 mg/100 ml
IMB Stimulus
AL Falling blood
AN
CE Ca2+ levels

Thyroid
gland
Osteoclasts
degrade bone Parathyroid
matrix and release glands Parathyroid
Ca2+ into blood. glands release
parathyroid
hormone (PTH).
PTH
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 Thymus

▪ Located in the upper thorax, posterior to the

sternum
▪ Largest in infants and children
▪ Decreases in size throughout adulthood
▪ Produces a hormone called thymosin
▪ Matures some types of white blood cells
▪ Important in developing the immune system

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 Adrenal Glands

▪ Sit on top of the kidneys

▪ Two regions
1. Adrenal cortex—outer glandular region has three
layers that produce corticosteroids
▪ Mineralocorticoids are secreted by outermost layer
▪ Glucocorticoids are secreted by middle layer
▪ Sex hormones are secreted by innermost layer
2. Adrenal medulla—inner neural tissue region

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Figure 9.8 Microscopic structure of the adrenal gland.

Adrenal
Capsule
gland
Mineralocorticoid-
Kidney secreting area

Glucocorticoid-
secreting area
Adrenal
Cortex
Adrenal gland
•Medulla cortex
•Cortex

Sex hormone-
Kidney secreting area
Medulla

Adrenal
medulla

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 Adrenal Glands

▪ Hormones of the adrenal cortex

▪ Mineralocorticoids (mainly aldosterone)
▪ Produced in outer adrenal cortex
▪ Regulate mineral (salt) content in blood, particularly
sodium and potassium ions
▪ Regulate water and electrolyte balance
▪ Target organ is the kidney

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 Adrenal Glands

▪ Hormones of the adrenal cortex (continued)

▪ Release of aldosterone is stimulated by:
▪ Humoral factors (fewer sodium ions or too many
potassium ions in the blood)
▪ Hormonal stimulation (ACTH)
▪ Renin and angiotensin II in response to a drop in blood
pressure
▪ Aldosterone production is inhibited by atrial natriuretic
peptide (ANP), a hormone produced by the heart when
blood pressure is too high

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Figure 9.9 Major mechanisms controlling aldosterone release from the adrenal cortex.

Decreased Na+ or
increased K+ in Stress
blood
Hypothalamus
Decreased Corticotropin-
blood volume releasing
and/or blood hormone
pressure Anterior pituitary

Increased
ACTH blood pressure
Kidney or blood volume

Renin
Heart
Indirect
stimulating
effect via
angiotensin Atrial natriuretic
peptide (ANP)
Angiotensin II

Direct
stimulating Inhibitory
effect effect

Mineralocorticoid-
producing part of
adrenal cortex

Enhanced secretion
of aldosterone targets
kidney tubules

Increased absorption Increased blood

of Na+ and water; volume and
increased K+ excretion blood pressure

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 Adrenal Glands

▪ Hormones of the adrenal cortex (continued)

▪ Glucocorticoids (including cortisone and cortisol)
▪ Produced by middle layer of adrenal cortex
▪ Promote normal cell metabolism
▪ Help resist long-term stressors by increasing blood
glucose levels (hyperglycemic hormone)
▪ Anti-inflammatory properties
▪ Released in response to increased blood levels of ACTH

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 Adrenal Glands

▪ Hormones of the adrenal cortex (continued)

▪ Sex hormones
▪ Produced in the inner layer of the adrenal cortex
▪ Small amounts are made throughout life
▪ Most of the hormones produced are androgens (male
sex hormones), but some estrogens (female sex
hormones) are also formed

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 Adrenal Glands

▪ Adrenal medulla
▪ Produces two similar hormones (catecholamines)
1. Epinephrine (adrenaline)
2. Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
▪ These hormones prepare the body to deal with short-
term stress (“fight or flight”) by:
▪ Increasing heart rate, blood pressure, blood glucose
levels
▪ Dilating small passageways of lungs

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Figure 9.8 Microscopic structure of the adrenal gland.

Adrenal
Capsule
gland
Mineralocorticoid-
Kidney secreting area

Glucocorticoid-
secreting area
Adrenal
Cortex
Adrenal gland
•Medulla cortex
•Cortex

Sex hormone-
Kidney secreting area
Medulla

Adrenal
medulla

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Figure 9.10 Roles of the hypothalamus, adrenal medulla, and adrenal cortex in the stress response.

Short term Stress More prolonged

Hypothalamus
Releasing hormones
Nerve impulses
Spinal cord
Corticotropic cells of
anterior pituitary

ACTH
Adrenal
Preganglionic cortex
Adrenal sympathetic
medulla fibers

Mineralocorticoids Glucocorticoids

Shor t-term stress response Long-term stress response

Catecholamines 1. Increased heart rate 1. Retention of sodium 1. Proteins and fats
(epinephrine and 2. Increased blood pressure and water by kidneys converted to glucose
norepinephrine) 3. Liver converts glycogen to 2. Increased blood or broken down for
glucose and releases glucose volume and blood energy
to blood pressure 2. Increased blood sugar
4. Dilation of bronchioles 3. Suppression of
5. Changes in blood flow patterns, immune system
leading to increased alertness
and decreased digestive and
kidney activity
6. Increased metabolic rate

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 Pancreatic Islets
▪ Pancreas
▪ Located in the abdomen,
close to stomach
▪ Mixed gland, with both endocrine and exocrine
functions
▪ The pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans)
produce hormones
▪ Insulin—produced by beta cells
▪ Glucagon—produced by alpha cells
▪ These hormones are antagonists that maintain blood
sugar homeostasis

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 Pancreatic Islets

▪ Insulin
▪ Released when blood glucose levels are high
▪ Increases the rate of glucose uptake and metabolism
by body cells
▪ Effects are hypoglycemic
▪ Glucagon
▪ Released when blood glucose levels are low
▪ Stimulates the liver to release glucose to blood, thus
increasing blood glucose levels

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Figure 9.12 Regulation of the blood glucose level by a negative feedback mechanism involving pancreatic hormones.
Uptake of glucose
from blood is
enhanced in most
body cells.

Insulin-secreting cells Insulin Tissue cells

of the pancreas
activated; release
insulin into
the blood. Pancreas Glucose Glycogen
Blood glucose
falls to homeostatic
set point; stimulus
Elevated blood Liver takes up for insulin release
sugar level glucose and stores diminishes.
IMB as glycogen.
ALA
Stimulus NC
E
Blood glucose
level (e.g., after BALANCE: Normal blood glucose level
eating four jelly (about 90 mg/100 ml)
doughnuts) Stimulus
IMB Blood glucose
ALA level (e.g., after
NC
Blood glucose rises E skipping a meal)
to homeostatic Low blood sugar level
set point; stimulus
for glucagon
release diminishes.

Glucagon-releasing
Glucose Glycogen cells of pancreas
Liver breaks
activated; release
down glycogen glucagon into blood.
stores and Liver
Glucagon
releases glucose
to the blood.
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 Gonads
▪ Produce sex cells
▪ Produce sex hormones

▪ Ovaries
▪ Female gonads located in the pelvic cavity
▪ Produce eggs
▪ Produce two groups of steroid hormones
1. Estrogens
2. Progesterone
▪ Testes
▪ Male gonads suspended outside the pelvic cavity
▪ Produce sperm
▪ Produce androgens, such as testosterone
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 Gonads
▪ Estrogens
▪ Stimulate the development of secondary female
characteristics
▪ Mature the female reproductive organs

▪ Progesterone
▪ Acts with estrogen to bring about the menstrual cycle
▪ Helps in the implantation of an embryo in the uterus
▪ Helps prepare breasts for lactation

▪ With progesterone, estrogens also:

▪ Promote breast development
▪ Regulate menstrual cycle

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 Gonads

▪ Testes
▪ Produce several androgens
▪ Testosterone is the most important androgen
▪ Responsible for adult male secondary sex characteristics
▪ Promotes growth and maturation of male reproductive
system
▪ Required for sperm cell production

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 Other Hormone-Producing Tissues and Organs

▪ Other organs that are generally nonendocrine in

function also secrete hormones
▪ Stomach
▪ Small intestine
▪ Kidneys
▪ Heart

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 Other Hormone-Producing Tissues and Organs

▪ Placenta
▪ Produces hormones that maintain pregnancy
▪ Some hormones play a part in the delivery of the baby
▪ Produces human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) in
addition to estrogen, progesterone, and other
hormones
▪ Human placental lactogen (hPL) prepares the breasts
for lactation
▪ Relaxin relaxes pelvic ligaments and pubic symphysis
for childbirth

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Table 9.2 Hormones Produced by Organs Other Than the Major Endocrine Organs (1 of 3).

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Table 9.2 Hormones Produced by Organs Other Than the Major Endocrine Organs (2 of 3).

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Table 9.2 Hormones Produced by Organs Other Than the Major Endocrine Organs (3 of 3).

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 Developmental Aspects of the Endocrine System

▪ In the absence of disease, efficiency of the

endocrine system remains high until old age
▪ Decreasing function of female ovaries at
menopause leads to such symptoms as
osteoporosis, increased chance of heart disease,
and possible mood changes

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 Developmental Aspects of the Endocrine System

▪ Efficiency of all endocrine glands gradually

decreases with aging, which leads to a
generalized increase in incidence of:
▪ Diabetes mellitus
▪ Immune system depression
▪ Lower metabolic rate
▪ Cancer rates in some areas

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