Digestion

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The Digestive System
 The Processes in Human Nutrition

Ingestion - the intake of food into the body

Digestion – the break down of food into soluble
form so it can be absorbed by the cell
Absorption – the diffusion and uptake of soluble,
substance
Assimilation - the incorporation of nutrients into
the body cells.
Egestion - The removal of faeces from the body
 The Digestive System

The digestive system is a long tube that runs from

the mouth to the anus, also known as the
alimentary canal.
Organs associated with the alimentary canal:
Pancreas
Gall bladder
Liver
 The Digestive System

Digestion begins: in the mouth (chewing)

Digestion ends: in the small intestines (absorption)

The 2 forms of digestion:

Mechanical or Physical Digestion (mastication) – chewing in the
mouth, churning (backward and forward motion of the stomach walls).
Large pieces of food small pieces

Chemical Digestion – where enzymes are used to breakdown food

into smaller molecules that are easily digested.
 The Mouth – Use your imagination

Digestion- the process by which food is broken down

from complex substances to simple substances
The start of the process: Ingestion – This is when
food is taken into the mouth.

The teeth breaks down food into smaller pieces by

grinding, biting or slicing.

The saliva softens, moisten and lubricate the food.

 The Mouth

Salivary amylase – the enzyme found in the

mouth that breaks down starch into the simple
sugar, maltose. Amylase is found in the saliva
which is produced in the salivary glands.

 Therefore in the mouth, food is partly broken down

by the process of chewing (physical) and by the
chemical action of salivary enzymes.
The food is then rolled into a ball, also called a
bolus, and swallowed.
 The Oesophagus

On the way to the stomach

 The oesophagus is a long tube that runs from the mouth to the
stomach.
After being chewed and swallowed, the bolus enters the oesophagus
where it is pushed along by peristalsis.
Peristalsis- is the rhythmic, wave-like movements caused by the
contraction and relaxation of the circular muscles in the walls of the
alimentary canal.
This muscle movement gives us the ability to eat or drink even when
we're upside-down.
 In the stomach

The stomach is a large, sack-like organ that churns the food and
bathes it in fluid called gastric juices.
Gastric juice is secreted by gastric glands found in the walls of
the stomach.
Gastric juice contains mucus, hydrochloric acid and
pepsin.
Pepsin is an enzyme that break down proteins to polypeptides.
Food in the stomach that is partly digested and mixed with
stomach acids by the action od the stomach muscles is called
chyme.
 In the stomach

At base of the stomach, there is a ring of muscles

called the pyloric muscle that separates the
stomach from the small intestine.
Hydrochloric acid
-provide the acidic medium for maximum enzyme
activity
-Kills bacteria
-Activate pepsin
Renin, if present, clots milk protein
 In the small intestine

 After being in the stomach, food enters the duodenum, the first part of the small
intestine.
 The duodenum receives juices from two (2) places; the pancreas and the liver. These
include:
1. Pancreas
Pancreatic juice is produced in the pancreas. The juice contains enzymes which breaks
down the remaining partially digested food into soluble products. These enzymes include:
 Lipase- digests lipids to fatty acids and glycerol
 Trypsin-continues to digest protein to polypeptides
 Amylase- continues to digest starch to maltose
N.B: Pancreatic juice also contains sodium hydrogencarbonate which is alkaline and so
neutralises the acidic chyme from the stomach.
 In the small intestine

2. Liver
The liver secretes the digestive juice, bile. Bile is a greenish- yellow alkaline
liquid produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder. It contains bile
salts that emulsify fats, that is it breaks fats into small globules so they can
be digested faster by pancreatic lipase. (Bile contains no enzyme) This
breaking down of fat into tiny droplets is known as emulsification.

Note: Pancreatic juice and bile are alkaline liquids and therefore
neutralizes the acid chyme from the stomach and create the optimal pH
for these enzymes.
 Small intestine

Food then enters the ileum (the last part of the small intestines).
Ileum: The wall of the small intestines secretes intestinal juice.
The juice contains enzymes which breaks down the remaining
partially digested food into soluble products. These enzymes
include:
 Maltase- digests maltose to glucose
 Sucrase-digests sucrose to glucose and fructose
 Lactase- digests lactose to glucose and fructose
 Peptidases-digests polypeptides to amino acids.
 Absorption In the Illeum

Mostly takes place in the ileum (last part of the

small intestines). This occurs via the villi (plural)
[villus (singular)].

The soluble products of digestion such as glucose,

fructose, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol, are
absorbed through the lining of the ileum.
 Adaptations for absorption

The wall of the small intestine is well adopted for absorption:

1.The human intestine is about 7 m long…how does this help? Enough time
for food to be absorbed.

2.It contains millions of villi. Villi are a tiny, finger-like projections that
protrude from the wall of the small intestine. They line the inner surface
of the small intestine.
Villi
 Absorption - villi
Villi increases the surface area within the small intestine. This will lead to
increase in absorption.

3. The cell membrane or epithelium lining of each villi is covered

with very minute projections or folding called microvilli. This
further increases the surface area of the cell for absorption

4. The epithelium lining are very thin (only one cell think)……
how does this help? This allows absorption of nutrients to occur
quickly and easily.

4.
 Absorption - villi

5. Each villus has a dense network of blood and lacteal (lymph

vessel) capillaries……….…..how does this help?

The blood vessels absorb and transports sugars, amino acids

and water-soluble vitamins, while the lacteal vessel absorbs
and transports fats away from the small intestine.
 Absorption - villi

Nutrients are absorbed due to concentration gradient.

Molecules enter by diffusion along a concentration

gradient (from high concentration to low
concentration).

However, can also be taken up by active transport!!

Needs energy to do so, therefore, many mitochondria
are present in the epithelial cells of the small intestines
(villi).
 Absorption - villi

Fatty acids and glycerol enter by diffusion into the

lacteal
Absorption
The villi
 In the large intestine

After passing through the small intestine,

food passes into the large intestine.
The large intestine is divided into caecum,
colon and rectum.
The first part of the large intestine is called
the caecum (the appendix is connected to
the cecum).
 Large Intestines
 Materials that pass into the large intestine includes:
undigested material, mainly cellulose and roughage, water
and mucus.
 Some of the water and electrolytes (chemicals like sodium)
are removed from the food in the colon, leaving a semi-
solid mass which passes into the rectum.
 In fact, the main function of the colon is to reabsorb water
from the faeces and so food moves slowly along it to ensure
maximum water absorption.
 Many microbes (bacteria like Bacteroides, Lactobacillus
acidophilus, Escherichia coli, and Klebsiella) in the large
intestine help in the digestion process.
 Large Intestines
The end of the process - Solid waste is then
temporarily stored in the rectum until it egested via
the anus as faeces.

The exterior through the anus is surrounded by a

circle of muscle called the anal sphincter.

The removal of faeces from the body is called

egestion.
 Assimilation

Process of incorporating and making use of the

digested food into the body. Absorbed food may be
stored or used by the body.
The food is needed for growth, repair, energy, development.
 Excess is stored in the body.
 Sugar – glucose used for respiration, excess converted to
glycogen and stored in the liver and muscles, also in the
adipose tissue as fats under the skin or around organs.
 Glycogen can be converted to glucose when the body needs
it.
 Assimilation

Amino acids – for growth, repair of damage tissue,

used to make enzymes and hormones.
Excess amino acid will be toxic if stored
They are deaminated in the liver!!

The toxic portion of the amino acid is converted into

urea before it is transported to the kidney and
excreted in urine, the useful portion of the amino
acid is converted to glucose or glycogen in the liver!!
 Assimilation – hepatic portal vein

Fatty acids and glycerol recombined to form fat –

into the lymphatic system
Form new cells, used in respiration if glucose is not
available.

Excess is stored in the adipose tissues (under the

skin) and around organs.
 Egestion vs Excretion

Egestion could be defined as the discharge of

undigested food particles or matter from the body of
an animal.

Excretion is the discharge of substances that have

gone through one or several metabolic processes
inside the body of an animal. Exhaling step of
respiration, urination, and sweating are the main
excretory processes of an animal.
 Constipation
 A diet lacking in fiber can result in a
blockage of the alimentary canal.
Therefore, fiber is necessary in the
diet.
 This blockage prevents egestion
(constipation).
 Constipation may cause haemorrhoids
(swollen or inflamed anal veins) which
are the result of force pushing.
Image showing
 Constipation also increases the chance haemorrhoids.
of colon cancer.
 HOMEWORK

Observe the structure of the liver.

Describe the functions of the liver.
The teeth
 Function of teeth

Food needs to be broken down and chewed before

entering the digestive system so that our body can
easily absorb nutrients from them.

Teeth can help us pronounce accurately.

Teeth can help us look better by giving us a good

profile/smile.
 Teeth

There are four types of teeth

Each tooth has four types of surfaces.

They are the inner surface, outer surface, chewing

surface and adjacent surface.

These different types of teeth have various functions:

Teeth
 Teeth
Type of Shape Function Location
teeth
Incisors chisel shaped cut & bite bits front of the
1 root of food mouth

Canine pointed or daggered tear foods behind the

shaped incisors
1 root
Premolar broad bumpy surfaced crush and grind just behind the
2 root and 2 pointed food canine teeth
cusps.
Molars similar to premolars crush & grind behind the
but are larger and foods premolars
wider at the surface
2 or 3 root and 4-5
cusps.
 The four (4) main types of teeth:
 Incisors: Everyone has eight teeth in the front of the mouth, four at the bottom
and four at the top. Usually these are the first adult teeth that child will receive
when the child is between six and eight years old. The incisors are the teeth used
to bite your food.
 Canines/ Cuspids : The canine teeth are located at corners of the mouth .These
teeth are sharp pointed and penetrating surface its function is to grab the food
and tear the food.
 Premolars: The Premolars are used to cut and crush food. Unlike its implications
and canines, the premolars have a flat bite surface. We will have the eight
premolars in our mouth.
 Molars: The Molars are the last tooth in the mouth .its function is similar to that
of premolars, to crush, tear and crush food. The molars have a large flat bite
surface that makes them perfect for this work.
 Deciduous Teeth

Children begin teething around six months of age.  A

child's mouth contains 20 temporary teeth called
primary teeth, baby teeth, milk teeth or deciduous
teeth, consisting of the following teeth types:
8 premolars
4 canine
8 incisors

Deciduous teeth can reserve spaces for permanent teeth. They start
to fall out when a child is about 5-7 years. Once the permanent
teeth start to erupt, the deciduous teeth will fall out and give room
for permanent teeth.
 Permanent Teeth

The adult human mouth contains 32 permanent teeth (16 per jaw).,
consisting of the following teeth types:
4 third molars (also called wisdom teeth)
8 molars
8 premolars
4 canine
8 incisors
In each jaw teeth are arranged symmetrically & identically.
Most people have a complete set of adult teeth by the time they reach
their teenage years. It is common for adults to have their wisdom teeth
removed because there is not always enough room for them to grow in
comfortably or without causing misalignment of other teeth.
The Teeth
 The Structure of the Teeth

The teeth is made up of 2 main parts:

The Crown-found above the gum & is covered in an

enamel (hard white coat).
The outer coating of the enamel is the hardest
substance in our bodies!! ( much harder than bones)

The Root- its securely fixed in the socket of the jaw

bone by dental cement.
 The Structure of the Teeth

 The smaller teeth (canine & incisors) have a single root & the
larger teeth (premolars & molars) have 2 or 3 roots.
 The cross section of a tooth consists of 3 main layers:
 Enamel: The hardest, white outer part of the tooth. Enamel is
mostly made of calcium phosphate, a rock-hard mineral.
 Dentine (its hard & bone-like little harder than bone) : A layer
underlying the enamel. It is a hard tissue that contains
microscopic tubes. When the enamel is damaged, heat or cold
can enter the tooth through these paths and cause sensitivity
or pain.
 Pulp cavity: The softer, living inner structure of teeth. Blood
vessels and nerves run through the pulp of the teeth.
 The Structure of the Teeth

Other layer:
Cementum: A layer of connective tissue that binds the roots
of the teeth firmly to the gums and jawbone.
 How to care for the Teeth

We can keep your teeth healthy by:

Eating less sweets & sweet foods.
Chewing sugar free gums between meals (this produce
saliva which neutralizes any acids).
Brush at least twice a day with fluoride toothpaste for
at least two minutes, especially first thing in the
morning and before bedtime
Floss every day – usually at bedtime
Visit your dentist every six months for an oral exam
and professional cleaning
 Why Clean our Teeth

Why clean teeth? To prevent decay!!

Plaque- A sticky, colorless film made of bacteria
and the substances they secrete. It begins to form a
coat over the teeth after a meal. Plaque develops
quickly on teeth after eating sugary food, but can be
easily brushed off.
Bacteria in the mouth feed on the sugar and starches
in the food, this produces a lot of acid waste. The acid
dissolves the enamel coat of the teeth.
N.B. the bacteria themselves do not cause tooth decay.
 Plaque Formation

 Over time this acid will eat away the enamel eventually
creating holes or cavity in the dentine of the tooth. The
bacteria can then enter the tooth, reproduce and feed on the
nerves, thus causing a tooth ache.
 As long as this doesn’t happen too quickly the tooth can repair
the enamel.
 The build up of plaque between teeth & gum causes gum
disease, as plaque rots the gum.
 It takes 24hrs for bacteria in the plaque to build up to a
destructive level.
 Therefore brushing the teeth once a day prevents tooth
decay!!!
Other teeth Conditions
Cavities (caries): Bacteria evade removal by brushing and saliva and
damage the enamel and deeper structures of teeth. Most cavities occur on
molars and premolars.
Tooth decay: A general name for disease of the teeth, including cavities.
Periodontitis: Inflammation of the deeper structures of the teeth
(periodontal ligament, jawbone, and cementum). Poor oral hygiene is
usually to blame.
Gingivitis: Inflammation of the surface portion of the gums, around and
between the crowns of the teeth. Plaque and tartar buildup can lead to
gingivitis.
Tartar: If plaque is not removed, it mixes with minerals to become
tartar, a harder substance. Tartar requires professional cleaning for
removal.
 Digestive enzymes
Enzymes Function Site of production
Lipase Break down fat to glycerol and fatty Pancreas and small
acids intestine
Protease e.g. Breaks down proteins to polypeptide Stomach, pancreas and
pepsin, tyrosin and eventually to amino acids small intestine
Carbohydrase Breaks down carbohydrates to Small intestine and
e.g. Maltase, simple sugars pancrase
Lactase, Sucrase

Salivary amylase Break down polysaccharides to Salivary glands

maltose

Pancreatic Break down polysaccharides to Pancreas

amylase maltose

Catalase Breaks down toxic hydrogen Most tissues

peroxide to water and oxygen
 pH of the alimentary canal

Mouth Slightly alkaline to neutral

Stomach Very acidic; pH 2 (dilute hydrochloric

acid)

Duodenum Very alkaline; (bile)

Illeum alkaline
 Revision questions

 Label the diagram and state the function of the organs.

 Revision questions

 Create a flow diagram of the digestive process.

 What is the primary organ of absorption?
 What are the sites where digestion occurs? Mouth, stomach and small
intestine.
 What is the end product of digestion for carbohydrates, proteins and
fats?
 Which nutrient is transported into the blood vessel and which in the
lacteal vessel?
 The blood and lacteal vessel assemble to form which two systems?
 What is the digestive functions of the liver? Storage, transforms glucose
into glycogen, filters out waste productes and toxins, synthesizes bile.
 Revision questions

1. Give a brief explanation of the digestive function of

each of the following:
(i) hydrochloric acid
(ii) salivary gland
(iii) bile
(iv) mucus
2. How does mechanical digestion differ from chemical
digestion?
3. State 4 adaptation of the ileum to the function of
absorption.
Revision questions
Revision questions
 Digestion and Absorption

Carbohydrate

Digestion begins in the mouth by salivary amylase

and completed in the small intestine by pancreatic
amylase.
 Digestion and Absorption

Protein

Proteins are broken down to peptides by pepsin in

the stomach

Trypsin in the small intestines – peptides to amino

acids
 Digestion and Absorption

fat
Bile breaks down large lipid droplets into smaller
droplets, by a process called emulsification.

Fat digestion occurs by pancreatic lipase in small

intestine.
 Digestion and Absorption

Vitamins

Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed and stored along

with fats.

Most water-soluble vitamins are absorbed by

diffusion or mediated transport.