LECTURE PRESENTATIONS

For CAMPBELL BIOLOGY, NINTH EDITION

Jane B. Reece, Lisa A. Urry, Michael L. Cain, Steven A. Wasserman, Peter V. Minorsky, Robert B. Jackson

Chapter 41

Animal Nutrition

Lectures by
Erin Barley
Kathleen Fitzpatrick

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Overview: The Need to Feed
• Food is taken in, taken apart, and taken up in the
process of animal nutrition
• In general, animals fall into three categories:
– Herbivores eat mainly plants and algae
– Carnivores eat other animals
– Omnivores regularly consume animals as well
as plants or algae
• Most animals are also opportunistic feeders

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Figure 41.1
Concept 41.3: Organs specialized for
sequential stages of food processing
form the mammalian digestive system
• The mammalian digestive system consists of an
alimentary canal and accessory glands that
secrete digestive juices through ducts
• Mammalian accessory glands are the salivary
glands, the pancreas, the liver, and the
gallbladder

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 • Food is pushed along by peristalsis, rhythmic
contractions of muscles in the wall of the canal
• Valves called sphincters regulate the movement
of material between compartments

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Figure 41.9a
Tongue Oral cavity

Salivary
glands Pharynx

Esophagus

Liver
Sphincter

Gall-
bladder Sphincter
Pancreas Stomach
Small
intestine
Large
intestine
Duodenum of
Rectum small intestine
Anus
Figure 41.9b

Mouth
Salivary
Esophagus
glands

Gall-
bladder Stomach

Small
Liver intestine
Pancreas Large
intestine
Rectum
Anus
Schematic diagram
The Oral Cavity, Pharynx, and Esophagus
• The first stage of digestion is mechanical and
takes place in the oral cavity
• Salivary glands deliver saliva to lubricate food
• Teeth chew food into smaller particles that are
exposed to salivary amylase, initiating
breakdown of glucose polymers
• Saliva also contains mucus, a viscous mixture of
water, salts, cells, and glycoproteins

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 • The tongue shapes food into a bolus and
provides help with swallowing
• The throat, or pharynx, is the junction that opens
to both the esophagus and the trachea
• The esophagus connects to the stomach
• The trachea (windpipe) leads to the lungs

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 • The esophagus conducts food from the pharynx
down to the stomach by peristalsis
• Swallowing causes the epiglottis to block entry to
the trachea, and the bolus is guided by the larynx,
the upper part of the respiratory tract
• Coughing occurs when the swallowing reflex fails
and food or liquids reach the windpipe

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Figure 41.10-1

Bolus of
Tongue food
Epiglottis
Pharynx up

Glottis Esophageal
sphincter
Larynx
contracted
Trachea Esophagus

To lungs To stomach

When a person is not swallowing, the esophageal

sphincter muscle is contracted, the epiglottis is up
and the glottis is open allowing air to flow through
the trachea to the lungs
Figure 41.10-2

Bolus of The esophageal sphincter

food Relaxes allowing the bolus
Tongue
Epiglottis To enter the esophagus
Pharynx up

Glottis Esophageal
sphincter
Larynx
contracted
Trachea Esophagus

To lungs To stomach

The swallowing reflex The larynx moves Upward and

is triggered When a bolus the
of food reaches the pharynx Epiglottis tips over the Glottis
preventing Food from entering the
trachea
Figure 41.10-3

Bolus of
Tongue food
Epiglottis
Pharynx up

Glottis Esophageal
sphincter
Larynx
contracted
Trachea Esophagus
Relaxed
To lungs To stomach After the food Has muscles
entered the Esophagus,
the larynx moves Contracted
downward and opens muscles
the Breathing passage

Sphincter
relaxed

Waves of muscular
Contraction (peristalsis)
move the bolus down Stomach
the esophagus to the
stomach
Digestion in the Stomach
• The stomach stores food and secretes gastric
juice, which converts a meal to acid chyme

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Chemical Digestion in the Stomach
• Gastric juice has a low pH of about 2, which kills
bacteria and denatures proteins
• Gastric juice is made up of hydrochloric acid
(HCl) and pepsin
• Pepsin is a protease, or protein-digesting
enzyme, that cleaves proteins into smaller
peptides

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 • Parietal cells secrete hydrogen and chloride ions
separately into the lumen (cavity) of the stomach
• Chief cells secrete inactive pepsinogen, which
is activated to pepsin when mixed with
hydrochloric acid in the stomach
• Mucus protects the stomach lining from gastric
juice

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Figure 41.11
Esophagus
Sphincter
Stomach

Sphincter
Small
10 m
intestine
Folds of
epithelial
tissue
Epithelium
Gastric pits on 3
interior surface
of stomach Pepsinogen Pepsin
2
Gastric gland HCl
Chief
cell 1

Mucous cell 
H
Cl

Parietal
Chief cell cell

Parietal cell
 • Gastric ulcers, lesions in the lining, are caused
mainly by the bacterium Heliobacter pylori

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Stomach Dynamics
• Coordinated contraction and relaxation of
stomach muscle churn the stomach’s contents
• Sphincters prevent chyme from entering the
esophagus and regulate its entry into the small
intestine

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Digestion in the Small Intestine
• The small intestine is the longest section of the
alimentary canal
• It is the major organ of digestion and absorption

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Figure 41.12-1
Carbohydrate digestion
Oral cavity,
Polysaccharides
pharynx,
esophagus Salivary amylase

Smaller Maltose
polysaccharides
Figure 41.12-2
Carbohydrate digestion
Oral cavity,
Polysaccharides
pharynx,
esophagus Salivary amylase

Smaller Maltose
polysaccharides Protein digestion
Stomach Proteins
Pepsin

Small polypeptides
Figure 41.12-3
Carbohydrate digestion
Oral cavity,
Polysaccharides
pharynx,
esophagus Salivary amylase

Smaller Maltose
polysaccharides Protein digestion
Stomach Proteins
Pepsin

Small polypeptides Nucleic acid digestion Fat digestion

Small DNA, RNA Fat (triglycerides)
intestine
(enzymes
from Pancreatic amylases Pancreatic trypsin and Pancreatic
pancreas) chymotrypsin nucleases
Disaccharides
Smaller
polypeptides Nucleotides Pancreatic lipase

Pancreatic carboxypeptidase
Glycerol, fatty acids,
Small peptides monoglycerides
Figure 41.12-4
Carbohydrate digestion
Oral cavity,
Polysaccharides Disaccharides
pharynx,
esophagus Salivary amylase

Smaller Maltose
polysaccharides Protein digestion
Stomach Proteins
Pepsin

Small polypeptides Nucleic acid digestion Fat digestion

Small DNA, RNA Fat (triglycerides)
intestine
(enzymes
from Pancreatic amylases Pancreatic trypsin and Pancreatic
pancreas) chymotrypsin nucleases
Disaccharides
Smaller
polypeptides Nucleotides Pancreatic lipase

Pancreatic carboxypeptidase
Glycerol, fatty acids,
Small peptides monoglycerides
Small
intestine Nucleotidases
Dipeptidases, carboxy-
(enzymes peptidase, and
from Nucleosides
Disaccharidases aminopeptidase
epithelium)
Nucleosidases
and
phosphatases

Nitrogenous bases,
Monosaccharides Amino acids sugars, phosphates
 • The first portion of the small intestine is the
duodenum, where chyme from the stomach
mixes with digestive juices from the pancreas,
liver, gallbladder, and the small intestine itself

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Pancreatic Secretions
• The pancreas produces proteases trypsin and
chymotrypsin that are activated in the lumen of
the duodenum
• Its solution is alkaline and neutralizes the acidic
chyme

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Bile Production by the Liver
• In the small intestine, bile aids in digestion and
absorption of fats
• Bile is made in the liver and stored in the
gallbladder
• Bile also destroys nonfunctional red blood cells

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Secretions of the Small Intestine
• The epithelial lining of the duodenum produces
several digestive enzymes
• Enzymatic digestion is completed as peristalsis
moves the chyme and digestive juices along the
small intestine
• Most digestion occurs in the duodenum; the
jejunum and ileum function mainly in absorption
of nutrients and water

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Absorption in the Small Intestine
• The small intestine has a huge surface area, due
to villi and microvilli that are exposed to the
intestinal lumen
• The enormous microvillar surface creates a
brush border that greatly increases the rate of
nutrient absorption
• Transport across the epithelial cells can be
passive or active depending on the nutrient

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Figure 41.13

Microvilli (brush
Villi border) at apical
Vein carrying
(lumenal) surface
blood to liver Lumen

Epithelial
cells
Blood
capillaries

Epithelial
Muscle layers cells Basal
surface
Villi Large
circular Lacteal
Intestinal wall
folds
Key
Nutrient Lymph
absorption vessel
Figure 41.13a

Vein carrying
blood to liver

Muscle layers
Villi Large
circular
Intestinal wall
folds
Key
Nutrient
absorption
Figure 41.13b
Microvilli (brush
Villi border) at apical
(lumenal) surface
Lumen

Epithelial
cells
Blood
capillaries

Epithelial
cells Basal
surface

Lacteal

Key
Lymph Nutrient
vessel absorption
 • The hepatic portal vein carries nutrient-rich
blood from the capillaries of the villi to the liver,
then to the heart
• The liver regulates nutrient distribution,
interconverts many organic molecules, and
detoxifies many organic molecules

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 • Epithelial cells absorb fatty acids and
monoglycerides and recombine them into
triglycerides
• These fats are coated with phospholipids,
cholesterol, and proteins to form water-soluble
chylomicrons
• Chylomicrons are transported into a lacteal, a
lymphatic vessel in each villus
• Lymphatic vessels deliver chylomicron-containing
lymph to large veins that return blood to the heart

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Figure 41.14
LUMEN Triglycerides
OF SMALL
INTESTINE
Epithelial Mono-
cell Fatty acids glycerides

Triglycerides

Phospho-
lipids,
cholesterol,
and proteins

Chylomicron

Lacteal
Figure 41.14a

LUMEN Triglycerides
OF SMALL
INTESTINE
Epithelial Mono-
cell Fatty acids glycerides

Triglycerides
Figure 41.14b

Triglycerides

Phospho-
lipids,
cholesterol,
and proteins

Chylomicron

Lacteal
Absorption in the Large Intestine
• The colon of the large intestine is connected to
the small intestine
• The cecum aids in the fermentation of plant
material and connects where the small and large
intestines meet
• The human cecum has an extension called the
appendix, which plays a very minor role in
immunity

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Figure 41.15

Ascending
portion
of colon
Small
intestine

Cecum
Appendix
 • A major function of the colon is to recover water
that has entered the alimentary canal
• The colon houses bacteria (e.g., Escherichia
coli) which live on unabsorbed organic material;
some produce vitamins
• Feces, including undigested material and
bacteria, become more solid as they move
through the colon

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 • Feces are stored in the rectum until they can be
eliminated through the anus
• Two sphincters between the rectum and anus
control bowel movements

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Concept 41.5: Feedback circuits regulate
digestion, energy storage, and appetite
• The intake of food and the use of nutrients
varies with an animal’s diet and environment

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Regulation of Digestion
• Each step in the digestive system is activated as
needed
• The enteric division of the nervous system helps
to regulate the digestive process
• The endocrine system also regulates digestion
through the release and transport of hormones

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Figure 41.19

1 2 3
Food
Liver Bile
Stomach
Secretin
Chyme and CCK
Gastric Gastrin 
juices  Gastric
Gallbladder CCK
juices

Pancreas HCO3, enzymes

Duodenum
of small intestine Secretin
CCK
 
Key
 Stimulation
 Inhibition
Figure 41.19a

1
Food
Liver
Stomach

Gastric Gastrin
juices 
Gallbladder

Pancreas

Duodenum
of small intestine

Key
 Stimulation
 Inhibition
Figure 41.19b

2
Bile

Chyme

CCK

cholecytokinin HCO3, enzymes

Secretin
CCK
 
Key
 Stimulation
 Inhibition
Figure 41.19c When chyme rich in fats enters the
Duodenum , secretin and CCK inhibit
peristalsis and acid secretion thereby
slowing digestion
3

Secretin
and CCK

Gastric
juices

Key
 Stimulation
 Inhibition
Regulation of Energy Storage
• The body stores energy-rich molecules that are
not needed right away for metabolism
• In humans, energy is stored first in the liver and
muscle cells in the polymer glycogen
• Excess energy is stored in adipose tissue, the
most space-efficient storage tissue

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Glucose Homeostasis
• Oxidation of glucose generates ATP to fuel
cellular processes
• The hormones insulin and glucagon regulate the
breakdown of glycogen into glucose
• The liver is the site for glucose homeostasis
– A carbohydrate-rich meal raises insulin levels,
which triggers the synthesis of glycogen
– Low blood sugar causes glucagon to stimulate
the breakdown of glycogen and release glucose

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Figure 41.20

Pancreas
secretes
insulin.
Transport of
glucose into Stimulus:
body cells Blood glucose
and storage level rises
of glucose after eating.
as glycogen

Homeostasis:
70–110 mg glucose/
100 mL blood

Stimulus:
Blood glucose
level drops
below set point.
Breakdown
of glycogen Pancreas
and release secretes
of glucose glucagon.
into blood
Regulation of Appetite and Consumption
• Overnourishment causes obesity, which results
from excessive intake of food energy with the
excess stored as fat
• Obesity contributes to diabetes (type 2), cancer
of the colon and breasts, heart attacks, and
strokes
• Researchers have discovered several of the
mechanisms that help regulate body weight

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Figure 41.21

Satiety
center

Ghrelin


Insulin

Leptin

PYY

 • Hormones regulate long-term and short-term
appetite by affecting a “satiety center” in the brain
• Studies on mice revealed that the hormone leptin
plays an important role in regulating obesity
• Leptin is produced by adipose tissue and can
help to suppress appetite

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