THE STRUCTURE & FUNCTIONING

OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

MODULE III
Directions in the Vertebrate
Nervous System
 Directions in the nervous system are described relative to the neuraxis, an
imaginary line drawn through the spinal cord up to the front of the brain.
 Anterior: with respect to the CNS, located near or toward the head.
 Posterior: with respect to the CNS, located near or toward the tail.
Directions in the Vertebrate
Nervous System
 Rostral: “toward the beak” with respect to the CNS, in direction toward the
front of the face.
 Caudal: toward the tail, with respect to CNS, from the in direction away
from the front of the face.
 Ventral: toward the belly.
 Lateral: toward the side of the body, away from the middle
 Medial: toward the middle of the body, away from the side.
Directions in the Vertebrate
Nervous System
Directions in the nervous system -
Planes
 Anatomical directions ignore the fact that humans walk upright. Therefore,
top of the head both “dorsal” (back) and “superior” (top)
 Other directions:
 Medial – toward the middle
 Lateral – toward the side
 Proximal – close
 Distal – far
 Horizontal – a slice parallel to the ground

 Frontal (coronal) – a slice through the brain parallel to the forehead

 Sagittal – a midsagittal section separates the left and right halves

Organization of the nervous system

2 big initial divisions:

1. Central Nervous System
 The brain + the spinal cord
 The center of integration and control
2. Peripheral Nervous System
 The nervous system outside of brain &
spinal cord Consists of:
 31 Spinal nerves
 Carry info to and from the spinal cord
 12 Cranial nerves
 Carry info to and from the brain
Functions of the Nervous System

 Control and communication system

 Monitors Changes inside and outside the body (sensory input)
 Processes and interprets sensory input and makes decisions (integration)
 Affects a response (motor output) by affecting glands, muscles etc.
 Works closely in conjunction with the endocrine system
Functions of the Nervous System

 Sensory input
 The nervous system has millions of sensory receptors to monitor both internal and
external change
 Integration
 It processes and interprets the sensory input and makes decisions about what
should be done at each moment
 Motor output
 Causes a response by activating effector organs (muscles and glands)
The nervous system has three
overlapping function:
Gathering of sensory input
Integration or interpretation of
sensory input
Causation of a response or motor
The Spinal Cord

Part of the CNS

Communicates with the sense organs
& muscle below the level of the head.
Sends & receives sensory information
to the brain & receives commands
from the head
Peripheral Nervous System

 Responsible for communication between the CNS and the rest of the body.
 Can be divided into:
 Sensory Division
 Afferent division
 Conducts impulses from receptors to the CNS
 Informs the CNS of the state of the body interior and exterior
 Sensory nerve fibers can be somatic (from skin, skeletal muscles
or joints) or visceral (from organs w/i the ventral body cavity)
 Motor Division
 Efferent division
 Conducts impulses from CNS to effectors (muscles/glands)
 Motor nerve fibers
Peripheral Nervous System
Grey Matter vs. White Matter

 The CNS has two kinds of

tissue:
 Grey matter: has a pinkish-
grey color in the living brain
and is a major component of
the central nervous system,
 White matter: is made of
axons connecting different
parts of grey matter to each
other.
Why Is Gray Matter Gray?
 The color difference between white matter and green
matter is related mainly to the whiteness of myelin.
 In living tissue, grey matter actually has a very light
grey color with yellowish or pinkish hues, which
come from capillary blood vessels and neuronal cell
bodies.
 White matter tissue of the freshly cut brain appears
pinkish white to the naked eye because myelin is
composed largely of lipid tissue veined with
capillaries.
Myelin

 Myelin is a fatty white substance that surrounds the

axon of some nerve cells, forming an electrically
insulating layer.
 The thicker the myelin sheath – the faster and more
efficient the nerve fiber becomes.
 It is essential for the proper functioning of the
nervous system.
 Myelination occurs during the learning process.
 It allows you to develop skills, like drumming, over
time. The more you practice, the more your myelin
grows.
Gray and White Matter Functions
 The grey matter includes regions of the brain involved in muscle control, and
sensory perception such as seeing and hearing, memory, emotions, speech,
decision making, and self-control. Grey matter makes up 40% of brain
matter. white matter comprises the other 60%.
 White matter is composed of bundles of myelinated nerve cell projections (or
axons), which connect various grey matter areas (the locations of nerve cell
bodies) of the brain to each other, and carry nerve impulses between neurons.
Meninges

 The protective sheaths around the brain and spinal cord are referred to as
meninges.
 3 layers that lay directly on the surface of the brain tissue (parenchyma) and
spinal cord.
 Offers a cushioning effect.
Meninges

 Dura Mater - outer most layer that is thick and fibrous, that lines the interior
of the skull.
 Arachnoid - middle layer, is extremely thin and loosely encloses the brain
 Pia Mater - inner most, mesh like and very vascular. It follows the
convolutions of the brain
 Spaces of the meninges - extradural, subdural and subarachnoid
Meninges

 Epidural space: Potential space superior to dura.

 The dura (outer membrane) is separated from the thin arachnoid by a
potential compartment, the subdural space, which normally contains only a
few drops of CSF.
 An extensive subarachnoid space containing CSF and the major arteries
separates the arachnoid from the pia, which completely invests the brain.
Meninges
Meninges
Ventricular system

 CSF is usually a clear colourless fluid that acts as a shock absorber

 CSF is produced by the choroid plexus in each ventricle
 CSF is reabsorbed into the venous blood flow via the arachnoid villi
 Arachnoid villi are small granulations that project from the SAS into the
venous outlets of the brain.
Ventricular system

 The brain contains a series of hollow, interconnected chambers called

ventricles, which are filled with CSF.
 The ventricular system is connected to the subarachnoid space
 Produces (~ 500mL/day) and circulates (~ 150mL) CSF.
 3 main compartments - 2 lateral ventricles, 1 third ventricle and 1 fourth
ventricle
 The largest chambers are the lateral ventricles, which are connected to the
third ventricle.
Ventricular system

 The third ventricle located at the midline of the brain.

 Its walls divide the surrounding part of the brain into symmetrical halves.
 The cerebral aqueduct, a long tube connects the third ventricle to the fourth
ventricle.
CSF
CSF

 The CSF provides mechanical support of the brain

and acts like a protective water jacket. Cushions
and insulates delicate nervous tissue.
 Exchange of gases (O and CO ), nutrients and
2 2
wastes.
 It controls brain excitability by regulating the
ionic composition, carries away metabolites and
provides protection from pressure changes.
CSF

 Choroid plexus: is the highly vascular tissue that protrudes into the ventricles
& produces CSF.
 It contains specialised ependymal cells and capillaries.
 Choroid plexuses secrete CSF into ventricles.
The formation of CSF

 Circulation is from choroid plexus to ventricles and central canal of spinal

cord to subarachnoid space to sinuses.
 CSF reaches subarachnoid space through two lateral apertures and a single
medial aperture in the 4th ventricle
 Arachnoid villi (granulations): penetrate dura mater meningeal layer of
venous sinuses, CSF absorbed into the venous circulation
Hydrocephalus
Hydrocephalus Results from
Blockage in the Circulation
of Cerebrospinal Fluid This
photograph shows a baby born with the
condition of hydrocephalus, which results when
the normal circulation of CSF is blocked.
Note the large size of the baby’s head,
which has expanded to accommodate
all of the CSF. Untreated, hydrocephalus
causes mental retardation, but today,
shunts installed to drain off the excess
fluid can prevent any further damage to
the child’s brain.
Brain development

 It begins around the 18th day after conception.

 Part of the ectoderm of the back of the embryo thickens & forms a plate.
 The edge of this plate form ridges that curl towards each other.
 By the 21st day, these ridges touch each other & fuse together, forming neural
tube- that gives rise to the brain & spinal cord.
Brain development

 By the 28th day, neural tube is closed, & its rostral end has developed 3
interconnected chambers which become ventricles.
 Tissue that surrounds them becomes 3 major parts of the brain: the forebrain,
the midbrain & the hindbrain.
 The forebrain divides into 3 separate parts, which become the 2 lateral
ventricles & the 3rd ventricle
 The region around the lateral ventricles becomes the telencephalon, & region
around the 3rd ventricle becomes the diancephalon
Brain development

 The chamber inside the midbrain (mesencephalon)becomes narrow forming

the cerebral aqueduct, metencephalon & the myelencephalon.
Growth of the Brain

CNS Begins Forming in the

Embryo at About 2 Weeks
The Neural Tube forms
around a fluid-filled cavity
Eventually it sinks under the
skin & develops into the
hindbrain, midbrain, & forebrain
The fluid-filled cavity becomes
the central canal & the 4
ventricles
Neurogenesis
5 Steps in Neuron Development
Proliferation
Production of New Cells

Migration
Movement of Primitive Neurons & Glia to Final Destination

Differentiation
Neurons Develop Axons & Dendrites

Myelination
Glial Cells Produce Myelin Sheaths Around Axons

Synaptogenesis
Formation of Synapses
Fine-tuning by Experience

 Plasticity of the brain: the brain can redesign itself (within limits) through
experience.
 Experience creates dendritic branches: enriched environments create more
dendrites & improve performance.
 Exercise release neurotrophins
 Generation of new neurons: stem cells can form new glia or neurons.
Human Brain is Similar to Other Species
Nearly all neurotransmitters
found in the human brain are found
throughout the animal kingdom
Ion channels are much the same
in all other species & bacteria
Brain structures are in same
locations & have similar functions
Size
The human brain is larger than
most mammals, but smaller than
whales, dolphins, & elephants
The Primate Brain
The Primate Brain

 Primates Have a Larger Cerebral Cortex in Comparison to the Brain of Insects

 Some Differences in Brain Size are Due to the Way of Life
 Development of Any Brain Depends on 2 Factors:
 How long the embryonic development of the brain lasts
 The number of new neurons produced per day
Nervous tissue development

 During the embryonic period, which spans 8 weeks, the embryo goes from
zygote to blastocyst, to two layer embryo, to three layer embryo
 The embryo upon reaching three layers begins to form the neural tube from
which will differentiate the brain and spinal cord
Evolution of the vertebrate brain

 The vertebrate brain began as 3 bulges at the anterior end

of the spinal cord:
 Prosencephalon (forebrain)
 Mesencepahlon (midbrain)
 Rhombencephalon (hindbrain)
 These are present in all vertebrates
 In more complex brains, they are further subdivided for
integration of complex tasks
 Complex behaviors due to increased brain complexity
Fish

Amphibian

Reptile

Mammal
Three Trends in Brain Evolution

 Relative size of the brain increases

 Brain size is a constant proportion of body weight in fishes,
amphibians, and reptiles
 Increases relative to body size in birds & mammals

 Increased compartmentalization of function

 Increasing complexity of the forebrain
 Transition from water to land of amphibians & reptiles made
vision & hearing more important, favoring enlargement of the
midbrain & hindbrain
 More complex behaviors parallel growth of cerebrum
Convolutions

 Convolutions increase surface area

 Surface area is more important than volume in determining complexity because
cell bodies are in the cortex
 Greatest in primates & cetaceans (whales & porpoises)
The Human Brain

 Continues four major evolutionary trends:

 Increasingly centralized in architecture
 Trend toward Encephalization (concentration of neurons at one end of the
organism)
 Size, number, and variety of elements of the brain increased
 Increase in plasticity
 Humans have the largest ratio of brain weight to body weight of any of earth's
creatures.
The human brain

 Evolved from a loose network of nerve cells (as in

the jellyfish) to a spinal column and complex brain
with large swellings at the hindbrain and forebrain.
 Increasingly hierarchical
 Newer additions to the human brain are involved in control
 The initiation of voluntary behavior, the ability to plan,
engage in conscious thought, and use language depend
on neocortical structures
The human brain

 Increase in plasticity
 The brain's ability to modify itself as a result of experience
 Makes memory and the learning of new perceptual and motor abilities possible.
Vulnerability of the Developing Brain

Developing Brain is Vulnerable to

Malnutrition, Toxic Chemicals, & Infections
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Decreased alertness, hyperactivity, facial
abnormalities, mental retardation, motor
problems, & heart deficiencies
Cocaine Exposure
Lower IQ scores & decreased language skills
Cigarette Exposure
Low birthweight. SIDS, ADHD, intellectual
deficits, impaired immune system, delinquency &
crime later in life
The brain

 3 structures serve to protect the brain

1. Scalp
2. Skull
3. Meninges
 SKULL- 22 bones in total
 8 make up the cranium, other 14 facial bones
 Cranium is that part of the skull that encloses the brain (cranial vault)
SKULL
General plan of brain structure

 The brain develops from a hollow tubular structure.

 The parts of the brain structure which is linear & sequential are included in
the brain stem
 The pairs of outgrowth from the brain stem are cerebral hemispheres
 The hemispheres have surface gray matter (cortex)
Major divisions of the brain
The forebrain

 2 major components: telencephalon & diancephalon

Telencephalon
 2 cerebral hemispheres are covered by the cerebral cortex & contain the
limbic system & basal ganglia , which are seen in the subcortical regions of
the brain.
Cerebral cortex

 Convolutions of the cortex consist of sulci (small

grooves), fissures (large grooves), & gyri (bulges
between adjacent sulci or fissures).
 Because cells predominate, the cerebral cortex
has a grayish brown appearance & called gray
matter.
Cerebral cortex

 The concentration of myelin around axons gives the tissue an opaque white
appearance- known as white matter.
 The cerebral cortex that covers most of the surface of the cerebral
hemispheres is called the neocortex.
 Another form of cerebral cortex, the limbic cortex, is located around the
edge of the cerebral hemispheres
 The cingulate gyrus, an important region of the limbic cortex.
Cerebral cortex

 Corpus callosum is the largest commissure (cross-hemisphere connection)in

the brain.
 It consists of axons that connect the cortex of the two cerebral hemispheres.
 Provides a pathway for communication
 Sometimes surgically severed to treat epilepsy
Bundle of nerve fibers
connecting the left and
right hemispheres
Split brain expt

•Subjects were
presented information
to one or the other side
of their brains.

•Patients identified
verbally the pictures to
the right (e.g., boy).

•When patients were

asked to use left arm to
point to the face seen,
the patients pointed to
the left picture
Right hemisphere

 It deals with:
 Spatial relationships, analyzes sensory information and releases the body to
the sensory environment, judging the position of things in space, knowing
body position
 Permits identification of objects by touch, sight, smell, feel or taste.
( recognizing faces and understanding 3-D)
Right Hemisphere

 
 Understanding and remembering things we do and see
 Putting bits of information together to make an entire picture
 Controls the left side of the body
 It analyzes the emotional context of a conversation. (“get lost” is it a
question or threat)
 Individuals with a damaged right hemisphere may be unable to add emotional
inflections to their own words.
Left hemisphere

 Understanding and use of language (listening, reading, speaking and writing)

 Memory for spoken and written messages
 Detailed analysis of information
 Controls the right side of the body
 Math, logic operations, processing of serial sequences of information, visual &
auditory details
 Detailed activities required for motor control
Corpus Callosum

 The corpus callosum connects the two hemispheres

 It is a large bundle of myelinated and nonmyelinated fibers, that crosses the
longitudinal cerebral fissure and interconnects the hemispheres.
 The corpus callosum serves to integrate the activity of the two hemispheres
and permits them to communicate with each other.
 Most parts of the cerebral cortex are connected with their counterparts in the
opposite hemisphere by axons that run in the corpus callosum.
 Study tips

 Right brain
You are a global thinker. Left
 brain
You are an analytical thinker.
 Before you begin studying, get organized.  Make sure you attend class regularly
 Work on developing time management skills  Come to class prepared
 Use spatial organizers when taking notes  Read ahead in texts to recognize
 Draw diagrams and identify organizational patterns
 Try visualizing the information presented in  Use memory devices
your notes
 Take precise notes
 Recite information
 Use mnemonics
 Practice/rehearse information on a
routine basis
 Use rhythmic activities
 Use specific study strategies, such
 Use movement
Patients with brain-damage

 Some patients with LH damage

 Can’t name fruits but can say that they are fruits
 Patients with RH damage
 Impaired comprehension of metaphorical statements
 More difficulty producing words from a particular semantic category than producing
words beginning with a particular letter
Visual
Fields

Also contralateral sensation

Right visual world: left brain
Left visual world: right brain
Tests of Cerebral Lateralization

 Nearly all (about 95%) right-handed subjects are left-hemisphere dominant for
speech;
 most left-handed or ambidextrous subjects (about 70%) are also left-hemisphere
dominant for speech; and
 Early left-hemisphere damage can cause the right hemisphere to become dominant
for speech and the left hand to be preferred
Spatial Cognition

Same figure but different orientation?

Yes
Spatial Orientation

Which block is the same as one of left?

KW 14-5
a
Cognitive
Tasks 1
correct

Men more likely to

Pick correct response

KW 14-21
Cognitive
Tasks 2

KW 14-21
Cognitive
Tasks 3

KW 14-21
Cognitive
Tasks 4

KW 14-21
 Visual Connections to the Hemispheres

 Visual Field-what is visible at any moment

 Right visual field-->left hemisphere
 Left visual field-->right hemisphere
 Cutting the Corpus Callosum
 Sometimes done to treat severe epilepsy
 Behavior is abnormal only when sensory stimuli
are limited to one side of the body
Split Brain Task 1

KW 14-18
Split Brain Task 2

Use left hand to find

object

KW 14-19
 Split Brain Task 3

Each hemisphere is capable

of responding independently
KW 14-19
 Visuospacial Processing

KW 14-20
Tests of Split-Brain Patients

 These tests confirmed the conclusion that commissurotomized patients have

two independent streams of consciousness
Evidence of Two Independent Streams of
Consciousness
 When an object was presented to the left hemisphere, either by touching
something with the right hand or viewing something in the right visual field,
the subject could:
Evidence of Two Independent Streams of
Consciousness
 Pick out the correct object with the right hand
 Could not pick out the correct object with the left hand
 Could name the correct object
Evidence of Two Independent Streams of
Consciousness
 When an object was presented to the right hemisphere, either by touching
something with the left hand or viewing something in the left visual field, the
subject could:
Evidence of Two Independent Streams of
Consciousness
 Could pick out the correct object with the left hand
 Could not pick out the correct object with the right hand
 Claimed nothing had been presented
Cross-cuing

 Represents communication between hemispheres via a nonneural route

 For example: a red or green light is flashed in the left visual field; the split-
brain patient was then asked to name the color: red or green…
Cross-cuing

 Most split-brain patients get 50% correct on this

task (guessing, by chance); however one patient
performed almost perfectly
 When the performance of this subject was carefully
monitored, it was noticed that on the trials when
the patient initially said (left hemisphere) the
incorrect color, his head shook and the patient then
changed their guess to the other color
Cross-cuing

 Apparently, the right-hemisphere (who knew the correct answer) heard the
incorrect guess of the left hemisphere, and signaled to the left hemisphere
that it was wrong by shaking the person’s head; when only first guesses were
counted, performance fell to 50%
Learning Two Things at Once

 Split-brainpatients are capable of learning two

things at once
 Ifa split-brain patient is visually presented two
objects at the same time - let’s say a pencil in the
LVF and apple in the RVF - s/he can reach into
two different bags at the same time, one with
each hand, and pull out the two objects - a pencil
in the left-hand and apple in the right
Helping-Hand Phenomenon

 Occurs when the two hemispheres are presented with

different information about the correct choice and
then are asked to reach out and pick up the correct
object from a collection in full view
 Usually the right hand will reach out to pick out what
the left hemisphere saw, but the right hemisphere
seeing what it thinks is an error being made causes
the left hand to grab the right hand and pull it over
to the other object
Split Hemispheres
Competition
Soon after surgery you may see competition between activities on
the two sides of the body
Hemispheric Specialization
Left
Speech
Movement sequencing
Detail-oriented
Right
Emotional content of speech
Recognizes emotions in others
Expresses fear and anger
Spatial Relationships
Music perception
A
Cerebral cortex

 The frontal lobes are specialized for the planning, execution,& control of
movements.
 The primary motor cortex contains neurons that participate in the control of
movement.
 Neurons in different parts of the primary motor cortex are connected to
muscles in different parts of the body.
 The left primary motor cortex controls the right side of the body & vice versa.
 Perceiving, learning, remembering, planning & acting takes place in the
association areas of the cerebral cortex.
Frontal lobe
Frontal lobe-general functions

 High level cognitive functions. i.e reasoning, abstraction, concentration

 Storage of information – memory
 Control of voluntary eye movement
 Motor control of speech in the dominant hemisphere
 Motor Cortex – Motor control of the contralateral side of the body
 Urinary continence
 Emotion and personality
The frontal lobe

 The frontal association cortex is involved in planning & execution of

movements.
 The motor association cortex controls the primary motor cortex, it directly
controls behavior.
 The rest of the frontal lobe is known as the prefrontal cortex, which is
involved in formulating plans & strategies.
‘All neural roads eventually lead to
the frontal lobes’ Kolb & Whishaw (2009)

 A massive network - prefrontal

cortex is the most highly
interconnected of all cortical
regions
 Interconnects:
 motor, perceptual, and limbic
regions
 parietal and temporal cortex
 Subcortical structures (e.g.,
brainstem, basal ganglia,
cerebellum) project indirectly to
PFC via thalamus
104
 In a perfect position to coordinate
Prefrontal cortex – the top of the
hierarchy
 Executive function – flexible, goal-directed behaviour in response to
internal and external cues
+ Planning + Filtering
+ Managing Delay + Flexibility
+ Contingencies and Rules

Goal-oriented behaviour – formulate, monitor, adapt

 Phineas Gage

 Foreman of a track construction gang

 Responsible and well-liked by his crew
 Building a railroad through Vermont’s Green Mts.

 Frontal lobe damage

 13.25 lb, 3.5 ft. tamping iron penetrates brain
 Passes from behind the left eye through the top of the head carrying away a substantial
part of the frontal lobe
Phineas Gage
 Phineas Gage

 No immediate problems after incident

 Phineas Gage supposedly never lost consciousness and was up
and discussing the accident soon after it happened
 Did eventually develop a wound infection but recovered
quickly and was soon deemed physically able to return to work
 “Gage is no longer Gage”
 Beforethe accident he was responsible, caring, and well-
behaved in a social setting.
 After the accident he became erratic, profane, and impatient
LOCALIZATION OF FUNCTION

In 1998, construction worker Travis Bogumill

was accidentally shot with a nail gun near the
rear of his right frontal lobe. Remarkably,
Bogumill experienced only an impaired ability to
perform complex mathematical problems. This
case supports experimental research showing
that the frontal lobes and short-term memory
are responsible for reasoning, problem solving,
mathematical calculation, and thinking about
future rewards or actions (Carlson, 2008; Hill,
2004; Neubauer et al., 2004).
 Causes of Injury

 Trauma
 Blows from the front, back, or side of the head can result in frontal lobe injury
 Even injuries not involving the head can cause bruising of the brain (whiplash)

 Diseases
 Strokes, lesions, meningitis, tumors
Causes of Injury
Core deficits associated with PFC

 Motor Planning, Gaze, Speech

 Loss of divergent thinking
 Impaired response inhibition and inflexible
 Inability to manage delay
 Impaired social behaviour
 Personality change
Dorsolateral Prefrontal cortex:
Working memory, filtering &
interference control, sustained attention.

Ventromedial and orbitofrontal

cortex:
Inhibitory control, planning, social
guidance and decision making

Anterior Cingulate:
An executive attention system that
responds to task difficulty, novelty, error
detection and correction and overcoming
habitual responding.
 Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex (DLPFC)
dysfunctions
 Difficulty in shifts in attention and behavior;
 Rigidity or stereotypy of behaviour
 Impairment of temporal memory
 Inability to dissociate one’s self from immediate surroundings
 Loss of foresight and planning
 Inability to sustain goal-directed behaviour and absentmindedness
 Lack of drive
ACC and Attention/Executive Control
 Key role in coordinating activity across attention systems
 Numerous studies show activation of the anterior cingulate in tasks
requiring the resolution of response conflict (e.g., Stroop tasks, divided
attention).
 Interaction with Lateral PFC to implement adjustments
 Key region for flexility
Clinical characteristics of Anterior
Cingulate damage
 Decreased spontaneity; decreased productivity;
decreased initiative
 Lack of ambition and drive;
 “pathological inertia”
 Lack of follow-through on plans
Clinical characteristics of Anterior
Cingulate damage
 Decreased spontaneity; decreased productivity;
decreased initiative
 Lack of ambition and drive;
 “pathological inertia”
 Lack of follow-through on plans
Clinical characteristics of
Ventromedial/Orbitofrontal damage
 Normalintellectual abilities, normal long-term
memory and Working memory
VMPFC
 Disinhibition, impulsivity;
 Inability to hold back responses
 Imitation and utilization behaviours
 Lack of awareness of effect of own behaviour on
others;
 Lack of self-criticism with euphoria and self-
satisfaction
 Reduced emotional risk perception
 Acquired sociopathy
 Abnormal sexual behaviour
 Neuropsychological
Assessment

Convergent vs divergent thinking

Wisconsin Card Sorting Task = reactive flexibility

Alternate Uses, Fluency tests = spontaneous flexibility

119
Work out the sorting category according to examiner’s feedback

Stroop task (response inhibition)

BLUE GREEN
 Tower tasks (planning)

120
Damasio Gambling Task – Risk Taking
 Consequences of Injury

 Three Frontal Lobe syndromes

 Orbitofrontal syndrome (lacks inhibition)
 Frontal Convexity syndrome (apathetic)
 Medial Frontal syndrome (akinetic)

 Answer lab assessments correctly but make poor choices in real situations
 Tests of perception, construction, language, and spatial attention are unharmed
 Three Syndromes

 Orbitalfrontal syndrome
Commonly caused by closed-head injury
Characterized by disinhibited, impulsive behavior,
difficulty in controlling their emotions, lacking in
judgment and are easily distracted
Many patients are incorrectly diagnosed with a
personality disorder
Possible link between violent offenders and
traumatic brain injury
 Three syndromes

 Frontal Convexity syndrome

Characterized by disinterest, slowing of the motor

functions and apathy
Inability to regulate behavior according to
personal goals
Inability to plan ahead, lack of motivation and
concern
Generally not caring about the world around them
 Three Syndromes

 Medial Frontal syndrome

Characterized by occasional mutism,

inability to control sexual appetite and
akinesia
Loss of sensation in lower extremities as
well as weakness also occur

 Many patients experience symptoms from each syndrome

Cerebral cortex

 Each primary sensory area of the cortex sends information to the adjacent
regions, called the sensory association cortex.
 Circuits of neurons in the sensory association cortex analyze the information
received from the primary sensory cortex, perception takes place there, &
memories are stored there.
Cerebral cortex

 The primary visual cortex, receives visual information, located at the back of
the brain.
 Destruction of the primary visual cortex causes blindness.
 People who sustain damage to the visual association cortex will not become
blind, they may be unable to recognize objects by sight.
Occipital Lobe
Occipital lobe general functions

 Primary visual cortex

 Visual association areas
 Visual perception
 Some visual reflexes (i.e. visual fixation)
 Involuntary smooth eye movement
Occipital Lobe Deficits--Problems

Difficulty with locating objects in

environment.
Difficulty with identifying colors (Color
Agnosia).
Production of hallucinations
Temporal Lobe
Temporal Lobe General Functions

 Primary auditory receptive areas

 Indominant ability to comprehend speech (wernicke’s) –
reception
 Interpretive area – area at the junction of the temporal,
parietal and occipital lobes.
 Playsan important role in visual, auditory and olfactory
perception
 Important role in learning; memory and emotional affect.
Temporal lobe

 The primary auditory cortex, receives auditory information

 People who sustain damage to the auditory association cortex may have
difficulty perceiving speech or even producing meaningful speech of their
own.
 People who sustain damage to the regions of the association cortex at the
junctions of the posterior lobes, where the somatosensory, visual & auditory
functions overlap, may have difficulty reading or writing.
SPECIFIC DEFICITS

Specific visual/auditory deficits, Memory disturbance, language comprehension,

changes in affect and personality
 Aphasia: unable to recognise words or comprehend speech
 Visual agnosia: difficulty recognising objects
 Prosopagnosia: inability to recognise people, faces etc.
3 most frequent dysfunctions:
 • Temporal Lobe Epilepsy (TLE)
 • Memory disorders
 • Alzheimer’s Disease
Amnesia Case Study: HM
 Henry Molaison (Patient H. M.) (brief news video following his death)

• Suffered from extreme epilepsy

• Bilateral mesial temporal
lobe resection extending
8 cm. back from the
temporal tips, including
the amygdala, and
destroying the anterior
two-thirds of the
hippocampus and
hippocampal gyrus
• Scoville & Milner (1957)
Amnesia Case Study: HM

• Henry Molaison (Patient H. M.)

 prototype of amnesia attributable to hippocampal damage
 Surgery led to a permanent, severe anterograde amnesia, limited
retrograde amnesia, and normal intelligence.
Amnesia Case Study: HM

• HM shows normal procedural

and implicit memory despite
extensive declarative and
explicit memory deficits.
• In particular, he shows normal
motor priming on pursuit-rotor
and mirror tracing tasks
LANGUAGE AREAS
BROCA’S APHASIA

 Characteristic symptoms
 labored and poorly articulated speech
 agrammatism (telegraphic speech)
 anomia
 agraphia
 Region of brain damage
 Broca’s area
WERNICKE’S APHASIA
Characteristic symptoms


 poor comprehension of spoken and written language

 fluent and spontaneous speech, but incoherent
 paraphasia (sound and word substitutions)
 alexia
 Region of brain damage
 Wernicke’s area
GLOBAL APHASIA
 Characteristics
 Total loss of comprehension and expressive abilities, involving both spoken
and written language.
 Some automatic speech, such as emotional exclamations retained
 Damage is extensive
 involves both B. and W. areas, large portions of frontal, temporal and parietal
cortex.
CONDUCTION APHASIA
 Characteristics
 fluent speech, comprehension only slightly impaired
 repetition primarily impaired (esp. novel or nonwords, or sentences)
 Brain regions damaged
 arcuate fasciculus (connection between B and W area)
 or primary auditory cortex
Somatosensory cortex

 Primary somatosensory cortex receives information about the

somatosenses(body senses, touch, pain, pressure & temperature) located
caudal to the central sulcus.
 Somatosensory association cortex deficits are related to the somatosensation
& to the environment in general.
 They have difficulty perceiving the shapes of the object that they can touch
but not see, they may be unable to name parts of their bodies, or they may
have trouble drawing maps or following them.
The Somatosensory and Motor Areas
Parietal lobe
Parietal Lobe General Functions

 Sensorycortex – sensory input is interpreted to define

size, weight, texture and consistency.
 Sensationis localised, and modalities of touch, pressure
and position are identified
 Awareness of the parts of your body
 Non-dominant – processes visuospatial information and
controls spatial orientation
 Dominant is involved in ideomotor praxis (ability to
perform learned motor tasks)
Parietal Lobe—Problems resulting from
deficit
 Inability to attend to more than one object at a
time.
 Inability to name an object (Anomia).
 Inability to locate the words for writing
(Agraphia).
 Problems with reading (Alexia).
 Difficulty with drawing objects.
 Difficulty in distinguishing left from right.
Parietal Lobe—Problems resulting
from deficit
 Difficulty with doing mathematics (Dyscalculia).
 Lack of awareness of certain body parts and/or
surrounding space (Apraxia) that leads to
difficulties in self-care.
 Inability to focus visual attention.
 Difficulties with eye and hand coordination.
Parietal Lesions – Contralateral Neglect

Series of self-portraits by German artist Anton Raderscheidt over 8-months period of time
CONTRALATERAL NEGLECT
Limbic system
Limbic system

 The term limbic system mean the entire neuronal circuitry that controls
emotional behavior and motivational drives.
 These structures are unified by their evolutionarily ancient origins, and they
constitute the major portion of the forebrain in many species
 A major part of the limbic system is the hypothalamus with its related
structures.
 Amygdala
 Hippocampus
 What are the main functions of Limbic
System?
The functions of the limbic system are also ancient, and they play an
important role for survival in the animal kingdom. Limbic functions
can be divided into the following four basic categories:

1. Homeostatic functions
including autonomic and neuroendocrine control
2. Olfaction
3. Memory
4. Emotions and drives
The other important functions of limbic System

 Generates emotions (Emotional brain)

 Add feeling to sensory experience which direct to behavior.
 Affect: interpret the sensory experience as pleasant or
unpleasant.
 Memory and learning which is closely linked to emotion.
 Sexual behavior, emotions of rage ,fear, anxiety and
motivation
Hypothalamus

 Hypothalamus represents less than 1% of the brain mass.

 It is one of the most important of the control pathways of the limbic system.
 It controls most of the Vegetative and Endocrine functions of the body as well
as many aspects of Emotional Behavior
 Hypothalamic control of Endocrine Hormone Secretion by the Anterior
Pituitary Gland
Vegetative and Endocrine Control
Functions of the Hypothalamus
 Cardiovascular Regulation
 Regulation of body Temperature
 Regulation of Body Water
 Regulation of Uterine Contractility and of Milk Ejection from the Breasts
 Gastrointestinal and Feeding Regulation
1. stimulation of the lateral hypothalamic area results to extreme hunger,
voracious appetite and intense desire for food
2. damage this area causes lose of desire for food, causing lethal starvation
Behavioral Functions of the Hypothalamus
and Associated Limbic Structures
 Effects Caused by Stimulation
 Stimulation of the lateral hypothalamus causes thirst and eating, increased
general level of activity, leading to overt rage and fighting
 Stimulation of the ventromedial nucleus causes sense of satiety, decreased
eating and tranquillity
 Stimulation of a thin zone of periventricular nuclei, leads to fear and
punishment reactions
 Sexual drive can be stimulated from several areas of the hypothalamus
especially the anterior and most of the posterior portions of the hypothalamus
“Reward” and “Punishment” Function of
the Limbic System
 The limbic structures are concerned with the affective nature of sensory
sensations – that is, whether the sensations are pleasant or unpleasant or also
called reward or punishment or satisfaction or aversion
Amygdala

The round red object is the

amygdala Functions
 Arousal
 • Controls Autonomic Responses
Associated with Fear
 • Emotional Responses
 • Hormonal Secretions
 Location: The amygdala is an
almond shaped mass of nuclei
located deep within the temporal
lobes, medial to the hypothalamus
and adjacent to the hippocampus.
The amygdala and Kluver-Bucy
syndrome
 The first good evidence linking the amygdala and related
temporal lobe structures to emotion was obtained in 1939 by
Heinrich Kluver and Paul Bucy. They removed the temporal
lobes, including the amygdala and hippocampus, bilaterally in
monkeys. They observed a dramatic change in emotional
behavior:
 Monkeys became tame, fearless, and had “blunted” emotions
 Increased oral activity, including placing inedible objects in their mouth.
 They exhibited increased sexual behavior, mounting inappropriate objects.
 Subsequent studies that made more precise lesions indicate that
the amygdala was a key structure mediating the emotional
effects.
 Hippocampus

Functions
 Consolidation of New Memories
 • Emotions
 • Navigation
 • Spatial Orientation
Location: The hippocampus is a
horseshoe shaped sheet of neurons
located within the temporal lobes and
adjacent to the amygdala.
The purple structure is the hippocampus (the red structure
is the amygdala)
Basal ganglia
Includes caudate, putamen, globus pallidus,
substantia nigra, subthalamic nucleus
 • Other groupings: striatum (caudate +
putamen), the corpus striatum (striatum +
globus pallidus), or the lenticular nucleus
(putamen + globus pallidus)
 Location:
 The basal ganglia is located deep within the
cerebral hemispheres
Basal ganglia

Functions
 Controls automatic associated movements – swinging of arms during walking
 Planning & programming of voluntary movements
 Determine rapidity & length of movement
 Decrease & regulate muscle tone & inhibit unwanted muscular activity –
smoothening of voluntary motor activity of body
 Control reflex muscular activity
Clinical conditions

 Increased muscle tone

 Parkinsons disease- depletion of dopamine in substantia nigra & neo-striatum
 • Abnormal involuntary movements
 Huntingtons Chorea – decreased GABA in striato-nigral fibres
 • Athetosis: continuous stream of slow, flowing, writhing involuntary
movements. It usually affects the hands and feet. 
 Hemiballismus usually involving violent, involuntary flinging of one arm
and/or one leg.
HIND BRAIN

FUNCTIONS
 Attention and Sleep
 Autonomic Functions
 Complex Muscle Movement
 Conduction Pathway for Nerve Tracts
 Reflex Movement
 Simple Learning
PONS

Function:
 Arousal
 Assists in Controlling Autonomic
Functions
 Relays Sensory Information
between the Cerebrum and
Cerebellum
 Sleep
 Location: The pons is the portion
of the brainstem that is superior to
the medulla oblongata.
Pons

 The raphe nuclei and the locus coeruleus project widely to the rest of the
brain and influence mood, states of arousal, and sleep.
Pons lesion

 Semi-coma
 Withdrawal
 (facial colliculus syndrome)
 ipsi jaw deviation upon opening
 inability to turn eye
 can’t close eye or smile
MEDULLA

Function:
Controls autonomic functions
 Relays nerve signals between the
brain and spinal cord
 Location: The medulla oblongata is
the lower portion of the brainstem.
Medulla lesion

 Other nuclei manage essential functions such as breathing, heart rate, and
blood pressure.
 Damage to the medulla is typically fatal due to its control over these vital
functions.
 Abnormal breathing
 Absent gag reflex
 Dysphagia
 Tongue deviation and atrophy
RAS

 Along the midline of the upper

medulla, we see the caudal portion
of a structure known as the
reticular formation.
 The reticular formation is a
complex collection of nuclei that
runs along the midline of the
brainstem from the medulla up
into the midbrain
 The reticular formation plays an
important role in the regulation of
sleep and arousal
RAS

ARAS (ASCENDING) DRAS (DESCENDING)

 Receives fibers from the sensory pathways via  INHIBITORY
long ascending spinal tracts. Smoothness and accuracy of voluntary
movements
 Alertness, maintenance of attention and Reflex movements; Regulates muscle tone;
wakefulness. Maintenance of posture; Control of vegetative
functions

 Emotional reactions, important in learning  FACILITATORY

processes.
Maintains the muscle tone;
Facilitates autonomic functions;
 Tumor or lession – sleeping sickness or coma.
Activates ARAS
RAS

 The Reticular Activation System (RAS) actually helps to alert, or awaken, the
upper parts of the Brain, including the Cerebral Cortex. Such actions keep the
Brain alert and conscious.

 The RAS also helps to control respiration and circulation and serves as a
filtering system for incoming sensory signals. For example, we awaken to the
sound of an alarm clock, to a bright light flash, or to a painful pinch because
activity in the RAS that arouses the Cerebral Cortex.
THALAMUS

 Function:
 Motor Control
 Receives Auditory, Somatosensory
and Visual Sensory Signals
 Relays Sensory Signals to the
Cerebral Cortex
 Location: The thalamus is a large,
dual lobed mass of grey matter
cells located at the top of the
brainstem
CEREBELLUM

 Coordination of voluntary movement

 Balance and equilibrium
 Some memory for reflex motor acts
 Synergic control of skeletal muscles
and plays an important role in the
coordination of voluntary muscular
movements.
 Because the function of the
Cerebellum is INVOLUNTARY (not
under conscious control), learning a
completely new physical activity can
be very difficult.
Cerebellum Deficits—Problems

 Loss of ability to coordinate fine movements.

 Loss of ability to walk.
 Inability to reach out and grab objects.
 Tremors.
 Dizziness (Vertigo).
 Slurred Speech (Scanning Speech).
 Inability to make rapid movements.