INSPECTION

AND
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
OF
ENGINEERING MATERIALS
PREPARATION OF SPECIMEN
2 instruments used in the study of internal structure of materials:

1. METALLURGICAL
MICROSCOPE
• is the optical microscope,
differing from other
microscopes in the method
of the specimen illumination.
• Since metals are opaque
substances they must be
illuminated by frontal lighting,
therefore the source of light
is located within the
microscope tube.
• This is achieved by plain
glass reflector, installed in
the tube.
2. METALLOGRAPH
• An optical microscope
equipped with a camera
for both visual
observation and
photography of the
structure and
constitution of a metal
or alloy.
 Steps in selection of materials

1. The sample is cut with extreme care

from a section of the material to be
examined. Care must be taken not to do
anything to the material that will change
its structure. For instance, overheating
the sample will change its structure and
must be avoided.
 Steps of selection of materials

2. After the sample cut, it is either

grounded by hand or mounted in a
Lucite or Bakelite mold if small, before
grounding. Grounding must continue
until all evidence of the cutting operation
is removed, leaving the surface flat and
smooth.
 Steps of selection of materials

3. To attain such a surface, rough grinding

is performed using emery paper No. 1,
followed by fine polishing with polishing
cloth charged with abrasive powder
suspended in water. The type of
polishing cloth and abrasive depends on
the material being polished. Unlike fine
polishing, rough grinding is done dry.
 Steps of selection of materials

4. Samples should show only impurities

after polishing. To make the
microstructure visible to the microscope,
it must be ETCHED. Once etched,
differences of grain structure orientation
and grain boundaries are exposed.
 Steps of selection of materials

5. Grain surfaces oriented perpendicular to

the light source the greatest percentage
of light along a line parallel to the
incoming light and, therefore, appear
almost white. Those that reflect at an
angle to the incoming light cause the
surface to appear dark. The greater the
angle of reflection, the darker the
appearance of the grain.
 Steps of selection of materials

6. After the specimens have been prepared, they

are viewed through a microscope, which is
capable of magnifying the structures 2000
times. Magnification of this order usually
requires the use of oil immersion lenses. As
practiced, a drop of cedar oil is placed on the
polished surface of the specimen. Then the
objective lens of microscope is brought in
contact with oil. The lines are withdrawn,
leaving a layer of oil on the sample and the
lens. This increases the resolution or light
power of the lens.
 Steps of selection of materials

7. An electron microscope maybe also used. This

instrument uses a high velocity electron beam
as an energy source. This microscope uses a
magnetic field to control and focus on electron
waves compared to light waves, the resolution
of the electron microscope is much greater
than the optical microscope. Magnifications are
of the order of 35,000 diameters and can be
increased to 200,000 diameters by aid of
accessories.
 3 TYPES OF ETCHING
1. GRAIN BOUNDARY ATTACK
An etching which reveals the grains by a chemical attack of their
boundaries.
2. DIFFERENTIAL ETCHING
A severe etch which results in various depth of grain attack.
3. STAINING
An etch using a chemical with a coloring material that results in contrast
in color among the grains facilitating differentiation of the grains.
ETCHING REAGENTS
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
MATERIALS
A. STRESS (S) – mathematically defined as the
ratio between a load (W) applied to a
sample and the original cross-section area
(A).
• S = W = lb = psi
A in2
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
MATERIALS
B. STRAIN (e) – mathematically defined as the
ratio between the change in length (∆L) of a
stressed sample to the original length (L).

• e = ∆L = in = no unit
L in
2 KNOWN CONCEPTS (used when a loaded
specimen starts to neck down)
1. TRUE STRESS - obtained from the cross
sectional area of the necked down portion at
the instant the load is applied.
2. TRUE STRAIN - obtained in the summation
of the ∆L/l from zero to rupture load.
 EVENTS taking place when a
specimen is loaded in several ways at
room temperature as follows:
1. Elastic strain occurs when the sample is
loaded and is deformed, but returns to its
original length when the load is removed.
2. Inelastic strain occurs when the sample does
not return to its original shape or length after
the deforming load is removed.
3. Rupture is the limitating state where separation
takes place.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
MATERIALS
C. MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (E) – is
the ratio of stress to strain.

E = S = psi
e
THE STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
1. PROPORTIONAL LIMIT (P.L.) – a point where the
curve deviates from a straight line, and indicates
that the material is elastic from O to P.L. and
becomes inelastic thereafter.
2. ELASTIC LIMIT (E.L.) – gives the maximum load
that can be applied to the sample without
permanent deformation.
3. YIELD STRENGTH (Y.S.)
4. ULTIMATE STRENGTH (U.S.) – the point of the
curve representing the highest stress that can be
applied to a ductile material before the sample
starts to rupture.
5. RUPTURE STRENTH (R.S.) – the ratio between the
load at the point of rupture to the cross-sectional
are of the original sample.
 Percentage of elongation
• Percentage of elongation = Lf – Li x 100
Li

• Where; Li = initial length

Lf = final length
 Percentage of reduction in area
• Percentage of reduction in area = Af – Ai x 100
Ai
• Where; Ai = initial area
Af = final area
 Important terms
• DUCTILITY
– this is the ability of the material to absorb energy or deformed
plastically without rupture. It is a measure of toughness.
– occurs when the material’s percentage of elongation and
reduction of cross-section area are large
• BRITTLE
– occurs when the material’s percentage of elongation and
reduction of cross-section area are low.
• BRITTLENESS
– is the more known as the property of a material to break or fail
without warning ( Warning means visible reduction in area or
deformation.)
 Important terms
• MALLEABILITY – the ability of the material to be
deformed plastically by hammering or rolling with
rupture.
• TOUGHNESS – the measure of the ability of a material
to absorb energy up to rupture. It is represented by the
total area under the stress-strain curve.
• CREEP – another type of inelastic action. It is the
deformation of a material under the combined effect of
temperature, time and constant tensile stress.
• FATIGUE – failure of a material to repeated load at
considerably lower than its ultimate strength.
STATIC FAILURE
 SLIP
• a mechanism of dislocation caused by the
movement of a layer of atom in a plane parallel
to its neighbour.
• SLIP PLANE – plane along which sliding or
gliding occurs and at some angle to the direction
of the applied force.
• SLIP LINES – the appearance of slip plane in a
specimen.
• SLIP BAND – several slip lines adjacent to each
other
 TWINS
• – dislocations wherein the atomic planes move over
each other some fractional part of the interatomic
spacing.

TWINNING
• a dislocation wherein the plane comes to rest so that it
appears to be a mirror image of the plane on the
opposite side of the twinning plane.
• WORK HARDENING
• STRAIN HARDENING
 3 HYPOTHESIS attempting to
explain strain hardening:
1. LATTICE-DISTORTION HYPOTHESIS – that
distortion of lattices when stressed interferes with
the smooth gliding of one plane on another.
2. FRAGMENTATION HYPOTHESIS – assumes that
instead of the atoms tearing loose, large segments
of lattices tear loose and deposit in slip planes.
3. AMORPHOUS METAL HYPOTHESIS – assumes
that atoms are torn from their lattices, deposit
between the slip planes and prevent the gliding of
one plane over another.
• RECOVERY – process when the thermal energy
helps the movement of dislocation. It aids the
destruction of imperfections already created.
FAILURE OF METALS UNDER
LOAD
 2 KINDS OF FAILURES:
1. TRANSGRANULAR FAILURE – rupture
across individual grains caused by
overcoming the cohesive bonds between
atomes within the grain.
2. INTERGRANULAR FAILURE – one
which is caused by overcoming the
adhesive bonds between the grains
THEORIES tending to explain the
failure of materials under load :
 MAXIMUM MORMAL STRESS
THEORY
• – states that a material will fail when the maximum principal stress
reaches a certain value which is the yield stress or ultimate stress as
determined from a simple tension or compression.

• S1 = SY or S1 = SU

• Where; S1 = maximum principal stress

S2 = minimum principal stress
S3 = intermediate principal stress in the case of 3
dimensional ste of stress. It is 0 for 2 dimensional state of stress
SY = yield stress from simple tension or compression
SU = ultimate stress
SS = shear stress
E = modulus of elasticity
m = Poisson’s ratio
 MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS
THEORY
• – a material will fail whenever the
maximum shear stress becomes equal to
the maximum shear stress at yield point in
simple tension. This theory has been
applied satisfactorily to ductile materials
having stress in tension equal to that in
compression.
• Max. SS = S1 - S2 or S1 - S2 = SY
2
 MAXIMUM STRAIN THEORY
• – this theory assumes that failure will
occur when the maximum strain is equal to
the strain at yield point in simple tension or
compression. This theory tends to
overestimate the strength of a member
subjected to biaxial stress in which two
principal stresses are of the same sign.
• S1 - m[S2 + S3]= SY
E E E E
 MAXIMUM STRAIN-ENERGY
THEORY
• – a material will fail whenever the
maximum strain energy per unit volume
under any system of stresses reaches
the value of the strain energy per unit
volume at yield point in simple tension.
• For 3-dimensional state of stress:
S12+ S22 + S32 - 2m(S1 S2+ S1 S3 + S2 S3 ) = SY2

• For biaxial stresses, where , S3 = 0

S12 + S22 - 2m (S1 S2) = SY2
 MAXIMUM SHEAR-STRAIN-
ENERGY THEORY or MAXIMUM
DISTORTION ENERGY THEORY
• it states that failure will occur when the value of the
maximum shear-strain energy per unit volume or work
done causing distortion causing distortion of the member
becomes equal to that at yield point in simple tension.

• (S1 - S2 ) 2 + (S2 + S3 ) 2 + (S3- S1 ) 2 = 2 SY2

 WORKING STRESS
• – the maximum permitted in a material
under conditions of actual use. Also
referred as ALLOWABLE, SAFE or
DESIGN STRESS.

• Working Stress = Strength of the material = Su

Factor of Safety F.S.