Language and Society

Language and Society ABEL 110
GROUP REPORT POWERPOINT PRESENTATION
Submitted to:
Dr. Merlita Q. Santos Ed.D
Director of Gender and Development (GAD)
Pangasinan State University
MEANING, IMPORTANCE OF LANGUAGE AND
SOCIETY
UNIT I
REPORTER TOPIC(s)
Jamela Inocelda 1.1 Definition of Language and Society
1,2 Characteristics of Language and

Jarvis Gomez
Society
Florence Esteban 1.3 Language Components
Sherilyn De Guzman 1.4 Types/ Kinds of Society

Definition of Language and Society UNIT I
• Language is both a system of communication between

individuals and a social phenomenon. The area of language and
society -sociolinguistics- (Sociolinguistics is the study of the
effect of any and all aspects of society, including cultural
norms, expectations and context, on the way language is used,
and society's effect on language) is intended to show how our
use of language is governed by such factors as class, gender
race etc.
• Language is the key to human lives. They can eliminate
misunderstanding by using it as an instruments to transfer
communication among people. Language is social by nature and
thus inseparably connected with people who are its creators
and users it grows and develops together with the development
of society.
Characteristics of Language UNIT I
• Language is symbolic – Each language is made up of sounds and

symbols, with each symbol having their own meaning. These
symbols are also dependent on the context they are used in.
• Language is cultural- Language differs. There is not just one
language, but many between cultures and even dialects of
those specific languages. Culture helps define language and
makes each language unique, setting up different rules and
customs.
• Language is flexible – Language can be expanded, recreated,
and used in many different ways other than its more obvious
uses. Examples are jargon, street talk, poetry, etc.
Characteristics of Language UNIT I
• Language has rules of usage- When speaking a language you do not

only learn symbols, sounds, and words. You need to learn the rules
on how each language works to form proper, cohesive sentences.
Just putting together a bunch of words will usually result in
confusion and the misuse of the language.
• Language is dynamic- words are continuously added to a language,
or learned by each person by cultural or social coinage, created
for commercial purposes, for education or scientific discovery.
• Language is arbitrary – Each symbol of language bears no natural
or logical resemblance to what they mean. For example the word
“building” bears no connection to what a building actually is. This
characteristic however, has some exceptions depending on the
language.
Characteristics of Society UNIT I
• Society is abstract- Social relationships can be felt, and imagined

but not seen.
• Likeness- Societies consist of like minded individuals. Each member
of a society finds in each other a sense of belongingness, which
cannot be found without likeness.
• Difference- Society depends on difference as much as likeness. This
makes the creation of the division of labor, social relationships,
and many other societal functions possible. If every member of
society were alike, then a society could not be properly formed.
• Interdependence- Man cannot live alone. It is not possible for

humans to satisfy all of their desires in isolation, and therefore
needs help of other individuals to fulfill the needs for survival.
• Cooperation- In order for interdependence within a society to take
place, there must first be cooperation. Members of society must
work together to survive. Without cooperation, the entire fabric of
society may collapse. “Cooperation-arises when men realize that
they have common interests. So great is the realization of the
necessity of cooperation on the part of every society” – C.H.
Cooley, American Sociologist.
• Conflict- On the opposite side of the spectrum from Cooperation,

conflict also arises as a constant characteristic of society. It is a
necessary process of struggle that must take place for society to
come into existence. Great civilizations like Rome, Greece, and
The United Kingdom could not have been created without the
necessary conflict that took place before their creation.
Language Components
UNIT I
Phonology
Comes from the Greek word phone means sound, voice, the study of
speech sounds of a particular language. A subdivision of phonology is
phonetics, the study of speech sounds of human language in
general, either from the perspective of their production
(articulatory phonetics), their perception (auditory phonetics), and
of their physical properties (acoustic phonetics). But there’s a tool
for representing human sounds in a regular way when studying
phonology the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) that has been
invented for this purpose.
Language Components
UNIT I
Morphology
Comes from the Greek word morphe means ‘form’. The study of the
structure from of words in a particular language, and of their
classification. This component is consider the principles of word
formation in a language; how sounds combine into meaningful units
such as prefixes, suffixes, and roots. Then it treats how words can
be group into classes, what are traditionally called parts of speech.
Language Components
UNIT I
Syntax
Comes from the Greek wordsuntassein means ‘to put in order’. The
study order and arrangement of words into lager units, as well as
the typ0es of sentences, of clauses and of phrases. Syntax is an
extensive complex area of language and nearly one-third of the
textbook is devoted to study of the English syntax.
Language Components
UNIT I
Semantics
Comes from the Greek wordsemaineinmeans ‘to signify, show,
signal’. The study of how meaning is conveyed, focusing either on
meanings related to the outside world or meanings related to the
grammar of the sentences.
Language Components
UNIT I
Pragmatics
Comes from the Greek word pragma means ‘deed, affair’ and
fromprassein means ‘to do’. This is not part of traditional
subdivision but added in recent years. The fifth component is the
study of functions of language and its use in content.
Types of Society
UNIT I
Sociologist Gerhard Lenski (1924–) defined societies in

terms of their technological sophistication
Types of Society
UNIT I
• Hunting and gathering societies- societies that rely primarily or

exclusively on hunting wild animals, fishing and gathering wild
fruits
• Pastoral society- social group of pastoralists, whose way of life is
based in pastoralism
• Horticultural society- an organization devoted to the study and
culture of cultivated plants.
Types of Society
UNIT I
• Agricultural society- also known as an "agarian society" society

that constructed social order around a reliance upon farming.
• Industrial society- driven by the used of technology to enable
mass production
• Post- industrial society- development during which the economy
transitions from one that primarily provides good to one that
primarily provides services.
SOCIAL VARIETIES OF LANGUAGE UNIT II
REPORTER TOPIC(s)
2.1 Sociolects and Idiolects
Janet Hazel De Castro
2.2 Dialect
Rhovelyn Guttierez 2.3 Pidgin and Creoles
Flordeliza De Vera 2.4 Slang, Argot, Jargons, and Registers
Ma. Christine Santos 2.5 Lingua Franca

SOCIOLECTS UNIT
II
Is a variety of language associated with particular group produced due to the
effect of education, occupation, social class, religion etc.
Are distinguished by social sub group and can be attributed to entire
subsets of a population with common sociological influences.
A variant language used by a social group such as socioeconomic class
an ethnic group an age group.
ORIGIN
SO-CI-O-LECT
ENGLISH - SOCIO ENGLISH – LECT 1970
IDEOLECTS UNIT
II
Id-i-o-lect
The speech habits peculiar to a particular person.
Is an individual’s distinctive and unique use of language, including speech.
This unique usage encompasses vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation.
Idiolect is the variety of language unique to an individual
Is a person’s specific, unique way of speaking. Every one of us has his or her
very own idiolect that differs from the way other people talk.
The language variant used by specific individual
DIALECTS UNIT
II
Di-a-lect
Noun a particular form of a language which is peculiar to a specific
region or social group.
A variety of language that signals where a person comes from. The
notion is usually interpreted geographically (region dialect), but it also has
some application in relation to a person’s social background (class dialect) or
occupation (occupational dialect).
The word dialect comes from the Ancient Greek dialektos ”to discourse,
language, dialect,” which is derived from dialegesthai “to discourse talk.”
PIDGIN AND CREOLE UNIT
II
Pidgin is the language of a mixture of two or more languages that form cannot
categorize into one of the original language. Pidgin languages are temporary
because there is no native speaker. Used in markets, trading centers and others
which are visited by native language
Here is the example of pidgin:
• Nigerian pidgin in Nigeria
• Bislama in Vanuatu
• Tok Pisin in PNG
• Chinese Pidgin English in China
• Solomon Island Pidgin English in Solomon Island
PIDGIN AND CREOLE UNIT
II
Creole is a pidgin language which is accepted as the original language that

already has- native speakers and it can be said is the mother tongue or first
language to a group. Creole languages include varieties that are based on
French, such as Haitian Creole, Louisiana Creole, and Mauritian Creole;
English, such as Gullah (on sea island of the southeastern United States),
Jamaican Creole, Guyanese Creole, and Hawaiian Creole.
HISTORY OF PIDGIN AND CREOLE
UNIT
II
In the past Pidgins were originated from the events like trade, seafaring and
tourism. Sometimes they were originated from the traumatic events like wars
and slavery. A pidgin or pidgin language is a simplified language that
develops as a means of communication between two or more groups that do
not have common language. It is mostly employed situations such as trade or
where both groups speak languages different from the language of the
country which they reside.
UNIT
II
The English term Creole comes from French Creole, which is cognate with
the Spanish term Creole and Portuguese Creole. The specific sense of the
term was coined in 16th and 17th century, during the expansion in European
maritime power and trade that led to the establishment of European colonies
in other continents. Originally, therefore, the term “Creole language” meant
the speech of any those Creole people
UNIT
II
The interest of linguists in this language has increased greatly in the last few decades.
The main reason for this is that Pidgin and Creole are young languages. In retracing
their development, it may be possible to see how new languages can arise.
Furthermore, the large number of shared features among widely dispersed Pidgin and
Creoles leads to the conclusion that Creoles at least show characteristics which are
typical of language in the most general sense, the features of older languages, such as
complex morphology or intricate phonology, arising due to the action of various forces
over a long period of time after the birth of these languages. In type, Creoles are all
analytic and generally lack complexity in their sound systems. Pidgins and Creoles are
both the result of what happens when you blend two or more languages.
UNIT
SLANG, ARGOT, JARGON AND REGISTERS
II
Slang
The origin of the word slang itself is obscure; it first appeared in print around
1800’s, applied to speech of disreputable and criminal classes in London. Carl Sandburg
poetically but not comprehensively wrote “Slang is language which takes off its coat,
spits on its hands and goes to work”. Slang is a particular way of speaking a variant of
language usage, a situation dependent communication code which is defined first of all
by the attitude of the speaker—or rather the use of which is the expression of an attitude.
Slang words and phrases are highly colloquial and informal type. Slang consists of
newly crafted words or of existing words employed in a special sense. Often, slang
words have a short shelf life, fading away after a generation. Some slang words have
endured and entered the lexicon.
UNIT
Examples of Slang:
II
Bogus- not real or genuine.

Geek- a person who is socially awkward and unpopular.
Mob- a secret organized group of criminals.
Hubbub- a loud mixture of sounds or voices.
Rowdy- noisy.
UNIT
II
Argot
From French argot in mid-19th century Author Victor Hugo was one of the
first to research and compile terms from criminal argot. In this novel Les
Miserable’s, he refers to that argot as both “the language of dark and the language
of misery”. Argot is a specialized vocabulary or set of idioms used by particular
social class or group, especially one that functions outside the law. Devised for
private communication and identification. This also called cant and cryptolect.
French novelist Victor Hugo observed that argot is subject to perpetual
transformation—a secret and rapid work which ever goes on. It makes more
progress in ten years than the regular language in ten centuries.
UNIT
Examples of Argot:
II
Piaf- a Parisian argot word for bird.

Piker- small town gambler.
Ringer- illegally substituted horse.
Shoo in- fixed race or easy win.
Card sharp- who is out to cheat you.
Flush- a hand of five cards.
UNIT
II
Jargon
The story of the word jargon dates back to the Old French word
“JARGOUN” meaning “twittering”. Jargon is the specific terminology used to
support our interests and occupations. For the Vocabulogic readership, associated
jargons includes semantics, pragmatics, morpheme, phoneme, analogy,
conceptual, contextual, etc. the American Heritage Dictionary defines jargons as
“the language, especially the vocabulary, peculiar to a particular trade,
Profession or group; medical jargon and also language that is characterized by
uncommon and pretentious vocabulary and convoluted syntax and is often vague
in meaning.
UNIT
Examples of Jargons:
II
Getting on a soapbox- making a speech in public.

Bang for the buck- means to get the most for your money.
Due Diligences- putting effort into research before making a business
decision.
Sweat Equity- getting a stake in the business instead of play
Chief cook and bottle- washer- a person who holds many responsibilities.
Suspect- a person whom the police think may have committed a crime.
UNIT
II
Registers
The term registers was first used by linguist T.B.W Reid in 1956 and
brought into general currency in the 196’s by a group of linguists. Registers
is a variety of language typically used in a specific type of communicative
setting: an informal register; the register of scientific discourse. An informal
register is typically used at home and at play. A formal register is used in
nonfiction texts, lecture halls, etc. there are also registers that fall
somewhere between formal and informal. Formal language is broadly called
Academic English.
UNIT
Examples of Registers:
II
Formal register includes:
Business Letter
Letter of Complaint
Official speeches
Essay
Report
Informal register includes:
Friendly Letters
Blogs
Diaries and Journal
Phone Texts
Clichés
UNIT
Lingua Franca
II
The term Lingua Franca derives from Mediterranean Lingua Franca, the
language that people around the Levant and the Eastern Mediterranean sea
used as the main language of commerce and diplomacy from late medieval
times, especially during the renaissance era, to the 18th century. At that time,
Italian-speakers dominated seaborne commerce in the port cities of the
ottoman empire and a simplified version of Italian, including many loan
words from Greek, old French, Portuguese, ocittan, and Spanish as well as
Arabic and Turkish came to be widely used as the “Lingua Franca” (in the
generic sense used) of the region.
UNIT
Lingua Franca
II
In Lingua Franca (the specific language), Lingua means a language as in

Portuguese and Italian, and Franca used to Phrankoi in Greek and faranji in
Arabic as well as the equivalent Italian. In all three cases, the literal sense is
“Frankish”, but the name actually applied to all Western Europe and during
the late Byzantine Empire.
The term is well established in its naturalization to English which is why
major dictionaries do not italicize it is a foreign language. Its plurals in
English are Lingua Francas and Lingua Francae, with the first of these being
first listed or only-listed in major dictionaries.
UNIT
Lingua Franca
II
Lingua Francas is a term for language used in business or other forms of

context between people of different cultures with different native languages.
A native language is the primary language a person learned first and uses
most often. In many cases, this means two communicating parties use either
one of their native language, a third language which is not the native
language of either party, or a language formed from more than one language
for the purpose of aiding communication. Lingua Francas also go by names
like trade language, contact languages, or global languages.
UNIT
Lingua Franca
II
Arabic was another early Lingua Francas in the other hemispheric of Asia
continent- the Islamic empire in the Arabian Peninsula. The Arabic became a
Lingual Franca in this region to serve its expansions of science, diplomacy,
and written records, or books, through the cross- cultural communication as
a common language in China, India, parts of central Asia, the Middle East,
Northern Africa, and parts of Southern Europe.
UNIT
Lingua Franca
II
During the AGE OF EXPLORATION, Lingua Franca also played an

enormous role to conduct trade and other important communications among
European explorers. For instance, Portuguese was the Lingual Franca of
diplomat and trade potions of India and even Japan. Malay became the
Lingual Franca of South East native peoples on this continent.
UNIT
Lingua Franca
II
Even the Dutch and British spoke Malay the Lingual Franca during their
international trading. Today, Lingua Francas play an important role in global
communications as well. The United Nations defines its official language as
Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish. The most obvious
current Lingual Franca is English language, which becomes an official of
international business, science, technology and aviation. There is many other
Lingua Franca along with multi Lingual places like Asia and Africa define
several unofficial Lingua Francas to facilitate communication ashier between
ethnic groups and regions.
HISTORY OF FILIPINO
LANGUAGE UNIT III
REPORTER TOPIC(s)
Analyn Macasieb
HISTORY OF FILIPINO LANGUAGE
Ronneth Ann Rico
UNIT
III
When the Spaniards claimed the Philippines as a

territory in the 16th century, the Philippines was not
a unified nation and did not share a common
language. The territory had thousands of islands, and
many of these islands had their own languages. Some
islands like Luzon, had several distinct languages,
among them are Ilocano, Tagalog and Bicol. The four
major trade languages in the country were
UNIT
III
Kapampangan, Ilocano, Visayan and Pangasinan.
The Spaniards in the Philippines, particularly the missionaries, wanted Filipinos to learn Spanish.
However, the church and government in Spanish did not want a repeat of the abuses done by the
Spaniards in Mexico. In Mexico, Mexicans who failed to learn Spanish were severely punished, not just
with fines but with physical pain, like whipping and imprisonment. That earned the Spaniards and Spain a
reputation of cruelty and tarnished the image of Roman Catholicism, the Christian religion the Spaniards
were trying to spread. So the Spaniards took a different approach, one they consider kinder and gentler
toward the Filipino natives. Instead of forcing the Filipinos to learn Spanish, the missionaries studied and
the native languages. This approach proved very effective and lasting. The natives embraced Roman
Catholicism and it became the dominant religion in the Philippine archipelago.
UNIT
III
A negative effect of that approach, however, was the failure to unite the country under one
language. The regional differences remained distinct, and even the American occupation and the Japanese
occupation could not change it. To many Filipinos this was not a problem for it also resulted to the
preservation of not only their language but their art and culture as well. Each language has its own
grammar, vocabulary, songs, poetry and set of idioms. The Spaniards missionaries not only learned them
but documented and propagated them too. Thus, when Filipinos celebrate their barrio fiestas, they do so
not in Spanish, certainly not in English, but in their own native tongue.
In the beginning, Spanish was the official language of the revolution. The national anthem was
written in Spanish. The declaration of independence itself was written and read in Spanish. Choosing
Spanish made sense then because it was already the country’s official language. But not all were happy
with the choice of Spanish as the language of the revolution. Some people believed the national language
of the new nation should be based on the people’s own language like Tagalog.
UNIT
III
The choice of Tagalog was reasonable because seven of the original eight provinces that started the revolution –
Tarlac, Nueva Ecija, Bulacan, Manila, Cavite, Laguna and Batangas were tagalog speaking provinces. The 8th
province – Pampanga, was not predominantly Tagalog speaking but people there understood Tagalog because the
other seven provinces were once part of the grand Pampanga province. As the Philippines evolved from a mere
colony to a fully independent republic, the national desire to have a national language became stronger. When
the war was over, there was a massive effort for the country to have a national language. All Filipino schools were
required to teach a nationalized version of Tagalog.
Beginning in 1959, this version of Tagalog became known as Pilipino. Because Pilipino uses the syntax
and vocabulary of Tagalog, some say Pilipino was nothing but Tagalog. But it really was more than that because
there were regional differences in the usage and style of Tagalog. These regional differences had to be eliminated
or unified to produce a consistent language called Pilipino. The responsibility to unify Tagalog to create a national
language was assigned to the National Institute of Language also known as “Surian ng Wikang Pambansa”. On
November 13, 1936 the first National Assembly of the Philippine Commonwealth approved Commonwealth Act No.
184 creating the NLI and tasking it making a study of each existing native language hoping to choose which was to
be the base for a standardized national language. Then President Manuel Quezon later appointed representatives
for each major regional language from the NLI led by Jaime C. De Veyra. Here are some examples of the unifying
process the National Language Institute had to accomplish:
UNIT
III
In Bicol, the question “Do you” is formed by affixing “Na” to the root word. So for the statement,
“Do you eat fish?” The root word for eat is “kain”. Combine this root word with “Na” and you have
“Nakain”. The noun for fish is “isda”. So you say “Nakain ka ba ng isda?” The syntax and usage of that
statement is fine in Bicol because it will be properly understood there. The problem is it does not come
across in other Tagalog speaking provinces. In Manila, for instance, the question “Nakain ka ba ng isda?”
means “Were you eaten by fish?” So what is correct Tagalog in Bicol may not be correct Tagalog in
Manila. As an example of regional differences in style between Batangas and Bulacan, to say “She is
beautiful” in Batangas you can say “Maganda siya eh.” In Bulacan you say “Siya ay maganda.” There are
also regional differences in Tagalog diction. Like in Pampanga, Tagalog words with the letter H lose the
H sound. Thus, “Bahay” which is Tagalog for house, becomes “Baay,” Likewise, words without H
acquire the H sound. Thus, “Mataas” which is Tagalog for high or tall becomes “Matahas” While this
speaking style is perfectly fine in Pampanga, it is considered improper in Manila and other provinces.
These examples of regional differences meant there was a need to call the national language by another
name, instead of simply calling it Tagalog.
UNIT
III
On December 13, 1937, President Quezon issued Executive
Order No. 134, s. 1937 approving the adoption of Tagalog as the language of the Philippines and
declared and proclaimed the national language so based on Tagalog dialect as the national language of the
country. The Republic Act No. 7104 was approved on August 14, 1991, created the Commission on the
Filipino Language, reporting directly to the President and tasked to undertake, coordinate and promote
researches for the development, propagation and preservation of Filipino and other Philippine
languages. On December 31 1937, Quezon proclaimed Tagalog as the basis of the Wikang
Pambansa (National Language) based on the following factors:
1.) Tagalog is widely spoken and is the most understood in all the Philippine Regions.
2.) It is not divided into smaller daughter languages, as Visayan or Bikol.
3.) Its literary tradition is the richest of all native Philippine languages, the most developed
and extensive.
4.) Tagalog has always been the language of Manila, the political and economic center of
the Philippines during the Spanish and the American eras.
5.) Spanish was the language of the 1896 Revolution and the Katipunan, but the Revolution
was led by people who spoke Tagalog.
UNIT
III
From the 1940’s to 1980’s this process of unifying and propagating of a national language proved very
successful. In 1959, nationalized Tagalog was formally reintroduced in all public schools as the “Pilipino
Language”.
In the late 1980’s there were efforts to call Pilipino by another name – Filipino. The 1987
Constitution of the Philippines specifically identifies Filipino as one of the only two official languages of
the country. The other language is English. The thinking goes like this: the language of the French is
French, the language of the Germans is German and the language of the English is English. Therefore, the
national language of the Filipino is Filipino.
Filipino, however, is not simply Pilipino given another name just as Pilipino went beyond Tagalog by being the nationalized version
of Tagalog. The purpose of the Filipino language is to include words from other Filipino languages – like Cebuano and Ilocano. From a national
perspective, this makes sense because Cebuano is spoken by twenty million Filipinos and Ilocano by seven million. The University of the
Philippines added fuel to this movement by publishing a Filipino dictionary called UP
Diksyonaryong Filipino. Later, the 1973 Constitution provided for a separate national language to
replace Pilipino a language which it termed Filipino. In 1987, a new constitution introduce many
provisions for the language. The 1987 Constitution designates Filipino as the national language and an
official language along with English. In the last 30 years, the name Filipino continued to replace Tagalog
and Pilipino as the true national language of the Philippines.
UNIT
III
Manuel Luiz Quezon y Molina (August 19, 1878- August 1, 1944) was 2nd and the first Filipino President of the
Commonwealth of the Philippines under U.S. colonial rule in the first half of the 20th century, serving from 1935 to
1944. Quezon is considered by most Filipinos to have been the second
President of the Philippines, after Emilio Aguinaldo. He has distinction of being the first Senate President
elected to the presidency, the first president elected through a national election, and the first incumbent to
secure re-election (for a partial second term, later extended, due to amendments to the 1935 constitution).
He is known as the “Father of the National Language”.
During his presidency, Quezon tackled the problem of landless peasants in the countryside. Other major
decisions include reorganization of the islands military defense, approval of recommendation for government
reorganization, promotion of settlement and development in Mindanao, tackling foreign
strangle-hold on Philippine trade and commerce, proposals for land reform and the tackling of graft and
corruption within the government. During his exile in the US, Manuel Quezon died of tuberculosis in
Saranac, New York.
UNIT
III
Quezon was born in Baler, Tayabas (now Aurora). His Spanish mestizo parents were Lucio
Quezon and Maria Dolores Molina. His father was a primary grade school teacher from Paco, Manila,
and also a retired sergeant in the Spanish colonial army. While his mother is a primary grade school
teacher in their city.
Derived from “Taga-ilog”, which literally means “from the river”, Tagalog is an Austronesian language
belonging to the Malayo-Polynesian subfamily, which outside influences from Malay and Chinese, and later from both
Spanish and American English thought four centuries of colonial rule. This influence is seen in Tagalog words and
their spellings. Tagalog has its own writing system based on an ancient script called the “Baybayin” that uses a
syllabic alphabet, which the Spanish colonialist romanized.
UNIT
III
There are thousands of loans words in Tagalog, particularly from Spanish, and the use of
“Taglish”, the mixing of Tagalog and English, is common, especially in urban areas. In both spoken en Tagalog,
English words (sometimes spelled according to their Tagalog pronunciation, oftentimes
not) are used alongside words of Spanish origin. Some of these borrowed words do have equivalent
forms in Tagalog but their use is reserved for formal or literary language. But many of these loan words
do not have Tagalog counterparts, especially those that refer to objects or concepts that did not exist in the
country prior to the arrival of Westerns.
LANGUAGE ENDANGERMENT AND EXTINCTION
UNIT IV
REPORTER TOPIC(s)
4.1 Healthy Language
Mary Mar Ancheta
4.2 Endangered Language
4.3 Extinct Language
Kane Zyril R. Bernardino
4.4 Reasons why Language Die
Micheal John Cruz 4.5 What is being lost?
Christine Grace Surnit 4.6 Reviving Endangered Languages

Healthy Language UNIT
IV
Is a totally fine language that it shows no signs of language endangerment or
extinction and it is used by a large number of people or native speakers.
If a language is used by a lot of speakers it wouldn't be endangered or eventually
die and it can be considered as a healthy language.
Examples of a Healthy Language
In the Philippines, Filipino and English are considered as a healthy language, as it
is used as our two major languages and it is spoken by a large number of people
and native speakers.
Another example of a Healthy Language is the Chinese Mandarin which is actually
the world’s most widely spoken language with more than one billion speakers.
Endangered Language UNIT
IV
Endangered language is a language that is at risk of falling out of use as its speakers die out
or shift to speaking another language. Language loss occurs when the language has no more
native speakers and becomes a dead language. If eventually no one speaks the language at
all, it becomes an extinct language. Although languages have always become extinct
throughout human history, they are currently disappearing at an accelerated rate due to the
process of globalization and neocolonialism where the economically powerful languages
dominate other languages.
Michael Cahill (1999) states it simply enough: A language is endangered “[when] it is in fairly
imminent danger of dying out. Cahill states two ways to quickly recognize when a language is
on its way to death. One is when the children in the community are not speaking the
language of their parents, and the other is when there are only a small number of people left
in the ethnolinguistic community: “The language dies because the entire people group dies.”
This second reason was especially common in the Amazon and in North America in the 19th
and 20th centuries.
IV
Not everyone agrees on a tight definition of an endangered language. The late
Stephen Wurm’s defining characteristic is that it is when a language is moribund
(meaning that it is no longer being learned by children as their mother tongue).
Factors that Contribute to Language Endangerment
1. Intermarriage- According to David and Nambiar (2003), marriages or
partnerships where one parent speaks a minority language and the other only the
majority language, can have a negative influence in the retention of the minority
tongue by the children. The tendency is to adopt the majority language only. For
example, Fulfulde (a language spoken in Nigeria) is under threat because of
intermarriage with speakers of other languages in the state of Gombe (Baldauf &
Kaplan 2007: 197).
IV
2. Market forces- Ridler and Pons-Ridler (1984) suggest that the choice of language reflects
the workings of the market. People choose a language that will benefit them in the long
run. In addition, Schiffman (1998) states that language shift (i.e. where people stop using
one language and adopt another, more prestigious language) in the minority group is
inevitable when the language of the minority is seen as a language which does not help the
speakers to improve their socio-economy and social mobility. Thus, the minority group will
shift to the dominant language. As previously mentioned, parents in Singapore are shifting
toward English and abandoning Asian languages in the home because of the market value
the English language has and the advantages it will give their children (Coupland 2011).
3. Migration- Grimes (2001) notes that sociolinguists agree that migration, either voluntary
or forced, is a cause of language shift. When members of a language community migrate,
the remaining community decreases in size and thus they may be unable to maintain their
language.
IV
4. Assimilation- Another possible cause of language shift in the family and
community is when there is very little difference in terms of lifestyle, custom and
culture between the majority and minority language community. It could be argued,
for example, that the Welsh have maintained their language relatively more
successfully than other Celtic languages because of their literary tradition, based
upon the Eisteddfod (bardic poetry) festival, thus keeping their identity distinct
from that of the neighbouring English. There is a children’s version of the Eisteddfod
(Eisteddfod yr Urdd) which encourages children to participate in traditional poetry
and literature in a ‘modern’ way. Click on this link to see how younger speakers of
Welsh are being encouraged to take up Welsh literary traditions. Of course, this is
just one factor among many, since Ireland, Scotland and Brittany also have distinct
cultural identities, but this has not prevented massive language shift among Celtic
language speakers in these countries as a result.
IV
5. National Education Policies- According to Grimes (2001), nation-state building
through the schools (by educating pupils in the national language) has contributed
to language shift in several countries, although it does not cause universal shift of
the language. This is because sub-ethnic languages are not given attention in all
education policies drawn up by the government. For example, one of the major
causes of language shift among regional language speakers in France has been the
lack of recognition of these languages in the French educational system.
6. Modernization- Grimes (2001) notes that modernization, among other things, is
a factor which accompanies language shift. When industrialization comes to areas
where minority languages are spoken, it is the majority language which is used to
train employees in the new plants and factories, and the majority language which
is used as a lingua franca.
IV
Six Levels of Language Endangerment
1. Healthy - totally fine language that it shows no signs of language endangerment.
2. Vulnerable - "most children speak the language, but it may be restricted to certain domains
(e.g., home)"
3. Definitely endangered - "children no longer learn the language as mother tongue in the home"
4. Severely endangered - "language is spoken by grandparents and older generations; while the
parent generation may understand it, they do not speak it to children or among themselves"
5. Critically endangered - "the youngest speakers are grandparents and older, and they speak
the language partially and infrequently"
6. Extinct - "there are no speakers left; included in the Atlas if presumably extinct since the
1950s"
in the Philippines
Endangered Languages UNIT
IV
Language Status
Alabat Island Agta language Critically endangered
Bataan Ayta language Definitely endangered
Batak language Definitely endangered
Camarines Norte Agta language Severely endangered
Central Cagayan Agta language Vulnerable
Dupanian Agta language Vulnerable
Faire Atta language Severely endangered
Isarog Agta language Critically endangered
Mt. Iraya Agta language Definitely endangered
Northern Alta language Severely endangered
Ratagnon language Severely endangered
Sorsogon Ayta language Critically endangered
Extinct Language UNIT
IV
An extinct language is a language that no longer has any speakers, especially if the language
has no living descendants. In contrast, a dead language is "one that is no longer the native
language of any community", even if it is still in use.
Extinct Languages in the Philippines

1. Agta Dicamay- is an extinct Aeta language of the northern Philippines. The Dicamay Agta
lived on the Dicamay River, on the western side of the Sierra Madre near Jones, Isabela. The
Dicamay Agta were killed by Ilokano homesteaders sometime between 1957 and 1974.
2. Agta Villaviciosa- is an extinct Aeta language once spoken in Villaviciosa, Abra.
3. Ayta Tayabas- is an extinct Aeta language in Tayabas, Quezon Province.
4. Katabaga- is an extinct language once spoken by Negritos in Bondoc peninsula, Quezon
Province.
Die
Reasons why Language UNIT
IV
The most salient reasons for language death are ethnocide or linguicide, or even
genocide, of an indigenous group. Ethnocide is when a dominant political group
attempts to purposely put an end to a people’s traditional way of life. Linguicide
(linguistic genocide) is when such a dominant group tries to extinguish the language
of a minority group, say by punishing anyone caught speaking it. Languages can also
disappear quickly if its speakers die in some natural disaster (a tidal wave, severe
earthquake, disastrous famine, or a measles epidemic), or are scattered in a way
that breaks up the language community. These were common reasons for language
extinctions in the 18th and 19th centuries. Today, however, minority languages
more commonly die “naturally,” rather than by being systematically killed simply
by being overwhelmed by the more passive acculturative processes of the
encroaching industrialized world. The Casiguran Agta case is an example of this
latter situation.
Die
Reasons why Language UNIT
IV
1. Natural Disasters, Famine, Disease- An example of this is the languages spoken by the
people of the Andaman Island, who were seriously affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean
earthquake and tsunami.
2. War and Genocide- Some languages die because of genocide. Kill off an ethnic group of
people, and their language goes with them. Examples of this are the languages of the
indigenous population of Tasmania who were wiped out by the colonists, and many extinct and
endangered languages of the Americas where indigenous peoples have been subjected to
genocidal violence, or in the cases of the Miskito language in Nicaragua and Mayan languages
of Guatemala have been affected by civil war.
3. Evolution- Languages are always evolving, along with the culture and lifestyles of the people
who speak them.
4. Coercion/Cultural Control- Other languages die because foreign invaders impose a state
language on conquered territories and force or coerce residents to stop using their native
tongues.
5. Absorption- Some languages die because the people who speak them assimilate with a larger
group that’s geographically close, and that language becomes the dominant language instead
of their own.
What is being lost? UNIT
IV
The grimmest predictions have 90 percent of the world's languages dying out by
the end of this century. Although this might not seem important in the day-to-day
life of an English speaker with no personal ties to the culture in which they’re
spoken, language loss matters. Here’s what we all lose:
1. We lose the expression of a unique vision of what it means to be human
That’s what academic David Crystal told Paroma Basu for National Geographic in
2009. Basu was writing about India, a country with hundreds of languages, at
least seven major language families and rapid language loss.
The effects of that language loss could be “culturally devastating”. “Each
language is a key that can unlock local knowledge about medicinal secrets,
ecological wisdom, weather and climate patterns, spiritual attitudes and artistic
and mythological histories.”
Languages have naturally risen and fallen in prominence throughout history.
IV
2. We lose memory of the planet’s many histories and cultures.
The official language of Greenland is fascinating and unique. It’s “made up of
extremely long words that can be customized to any occasion”. And there are as
many of those words as there are sentences in English. Some of those, like words
for different kinds of wind, are disappearing before linguists get the chance to
explore them. And that disappearance has broader implications for the
understanding of how humans process language.
IV
3. We lose some of the best local resources for combatting environmental threats
As Nancy Rivenburgh wrote for the International Association of Conference
Interpreters, what’s happening with today’s language loss is actually quite different
from anything that happened before. Languages in the past disappeared and were
born anew but they did so in a state of what linguists call linguistic equilibrium. In
the last 500 years, however, the equilibrium that characterized much of human
history is now gone. And the world’s dominant languages or what are often called
metropolitan languages are all now rapidly expanding at the expense of peripheral
indigenous languages. Those peripheral languages are not being replaced.
That means that out of the around 7000 languages that most reputable sources
estimate are spoken globally, only the top 100 are widely spoken. And it isn’t just
our understanding of the human mind that’s impaired, she writes. In many places,
indigenous languages and their speakers are rich sources of information about the
world around them and the plants and animals in the area where they live. In a
time of mass extinction, that knowledge is especially precious.
IV
4. Some people lose their mother tongue.
The real tragedy of all this might just be all of the people who find themselves
unable to speak their first language, the language they learned how to describe
the world in. Some find themselves in the unenviable position of being one of the
few (or the only) speakers of their mother tongue. And some, like many of
Canada’s indigenous peoples, find their language in grave danger as the result of
a campaign by government to stamp out their cultures.
IV
4. Some people lose their mother tongue.
The real tragedy of all this might just be all of the people who find themselves
unable to speak their first language, the language they learned how to describe
the world in. Some find themselves in the unenviable position of being one of the
few (or the only) speakers of their mother tongue. And some, like many of
Canada’s indigenous peoples, find their language in grave danger as the result of
a campaign by government to stamp out their cultures.
that are Lost when Language Dies
Metaphors of Language UNIT
IV
1. Culture- As the sum total of ways of living built up by a group of people. Every community,
cultural group, or ethnic groups has its own values, beliefs and way of life.
2. Soul- Is an abstract metaphor of language in which we can't see it, but rather we can feel it.
everyone of us have our own soul which communicates with each other through a frequency that
radiates and can be felt by someone.
3. Mind- We lose a way of thinking in the manner of how a certain language is created. We can
come close to understand their thought structure, but we won't think exactly in the same fashion.
4. Spirit- It connects us to a world beyond our reach. Every time we speak, it sends out a vibration.
This vibration is like a telecommunications to things unseen. people alike respond to the tone of
our voice rather than why you've actually said.
5. Knowledge- There are unwritten knowledge in a culture that's naturally passed down to new
generations by means of oral tradition. These knowledge are poten6. Communication - A language
encodes a value system and defines the thought processes of its speakers and how they express
them. there are often ideas you can express in one language that you cannot say in another.
7. People - It doesn't mean that a person dies, but rather the speakers of a particular language is
left speechless.
tial rich source of knowledge.
Languages
Reviving Endangered UNIT
IV
Many other languages are no longer being learned by new generations of children
or by new adult speakers; these languages will become extinct when their last
speaker dies. In fact, dozens of languages today have only one native speaker still
living, and that person's death will mean the extinction of the language: It will no
longer be spoken, or known, by anyone.
Language revitalization, language revival or reversing language shift is the
attempt by interested parties, including individuals, cultural or community
groups, governments, or political authorities, to reverse the decline of a
language.
Linguicide is the death of a language from natural or political causes, and rarely
glottophagy, the absorption or replacement of a minor language by a major
language.
Language Revival?
Possible Reasons for UNIT
IV
1. To preserve a language / prevent its extinction.
2. In countries with a colonial history: to restore the language of the colonised
instead of speaking the language of the colonisers.
3. To strengthen a cultural / ethnic identity by reviving the language of that
culture/ ethnic group.
4. Language as a heritage which shouldn't be lost.
5. To unify an ethnic group under one language and give them their identity.
6. To unify many cultural groups under one language.
Strategies for Language Revival?
What are Possible UNIT
IV
Joshua Fishman's Model for Reviving Threatened or Dead Languages (8 steps):
1. Acquisition of the language by adults, who in effect act as language apprentices
2. Create a socially integrated population of active speakers (or users) of the language
3. In localities where there are a reasonable number of people habitually using the language, encourage the
informal use of the language among people of all age groups and within families and bolster its daily use
through the establishment of local neighborhood institutions in which the language is encouraged, protected
and (in certain contexts at least) used exclusively.
4. In areas where oral competence in the language has been achieved in all age groups encourage literacy in
the language but in a way that does not depend upon assistance from (or goodwill of) the state education
system.
5. Where the state permits it, and where numbers warrant, encourage the use of the language in compulsory
state education.
6. Where the above stages have been achieved and consolidated, encourage the use of the language in the
workplace (lower work sphere).
7. Where the above stages have been achieved and consolidated encourage the use of the language in local
government services and mass media.
8. Where the above stages have been achieved and consolidated encourage use of the language in higher
education, government etc.
LINGUISTICS DIVERSITY AND
SPEECH COMMUNITY UNIT V
REPORTER TOPIC(s)
Jeremy Manalo 5.1 Communicative Styles
5.2 Language Diversity
Jessa M. Fortaleza
5.3 Basic Communication Styles
5.4 Effective ways for better Speech
Caressa Quimson
Communication
UNIT
Communicative Styles
V
The Controller
The controller communication style is very direct — demanding facts in a very
straightforward and blunt fashion. People who communicate this way tend to have the
following character traits.
They can be very motivated and dedicated to their tasks. They are very goal-oriented and
determined to meet deadlines and objectives. They make eye contact and are often seen as
exhibiting an aggressive style and assertive behavior. They are also sometimes seen as
aggressive and bossy communicators in their stringency. They are the go-getter types who
will jump on a project and spend many a late night in the office working on it until it meets
their standards.
A conversation with a controller should be short, sweet and to the point. In the
workplace, these people tend to be leaders with communication skills but a tendency to
come off as bossy. They are blunt, straightforward and to the point. They don’t mince words
and expect the same conciseness in return. They want to know the important factors but
don’t have time for the small details. Don’t waste their time with unnecessary information,
as they won’t over-explain when giving a project to you. When communicating with a
controller, expect to figure a lot of things out as you go, as they probably won’t spend too
much time filling you in.
UNIT
V
The Promoter
The promoter communication style is enthusiastic and people-driven. The promoter is the
person with the following characteristics. They will spend hours talking about their weekend
plans but will also detail a project from start to finish, providing the most intricate of details.
They are passionate and engaging and not too worried about taking themselves too seriously.
They are excellent at effective interpersonal communication. They are easy to spot as they are
usually the social butterflies of the office. They are always talking about their lives, plans, and
ambitions, and are just as quick to ask you the same. They like to deliver a personal message
when talking with colleagues and cater to their projects and conversations with their
audiences. Their verbal and non-verbal communication styles are open, honest and
enthusiastic. In the workplace, this makes them easy to approach with questions or feedback.
They are happy to offer a further explanation of a project or client and love to help where
they can. That all said, their socialness can be a downfall as they easily get sidetracked. You
could go to them with a quick question and lose an hour of time because they’ve jumped
around to an array of different topics. They aren’t so much detail-oriented as they are people-
and experience-oriented. When engaging with a promoter, ask them personal questions and
expect to be asked them in return. Use plenty of tangible examples and get ready to steer
them back in the direction you are looking for them to answer.
UNIT
V
The Analyzer
Organized and astute, the analyzer loves facts and intricate details. These types have the
following characteristics. They are very organized and make organization and understanding all
facets of a project a priority before anything else. This type of communicator is deep,
thoughtful, analytical, and usually more serious than other communicators. They want to have
all the facts before making a decision or pulling the trigger on an idea or initiative which can be
frustrating for team members who want to move forward with a project. These types demand
high-context communication but do not come off as overly assertive or aggressive. If anything
they are questioning and speculative. But their analytical mindset means that they are always
looking at the big picture based on an array of intricate details. They can sometimes be seen as
pessimistic communicators. In the workplace, these types need all the facts as soon as possible.
They want to analyze and investigate and understand a project from all angles. When engaging
with an analyzer, make sure you have all the facts and have outlined a project in detail before
bringing it to their attention. Also get ready for questions — because they will have them. This
might be discouraging. It might make you feel a little silly or dumb because of their hesitancy to
fully believe you, your idea, or vision — but this is just because they are trying to understand it
as thoroughly as possible. Analyzers require patience, but the payoff is worth it. Similarly,
expect an in-depth presentation when given a project by an analyzer.
UNIT
V
The Supporter
Calm, cool, and collected is a relatively accurate way to
describe the supporter. This personality type has the
following characteristics. They are easily likable in their
low-maintenance vibes and ways of working and
interacting with colleagues. They have excellent
interpersonal communication skills and are always open to
talk about more personal information topics — though they
don’t seek it out as eagerly as the promoter. This
communication type is the most common
UNIT
The Language Diversity
V
The language diversity is an evolving one that requires

awareness, understanding and skill much in the same
way as other areas of diversity competencies. Language
provides a means for communication among and
between individuals and groups.
5 Basic Skills Communication Styles
UNIT
V
Passive
Individuals who use the passive communication style often act indifferently,
yielding to others. Passive communicators usually fail to express their feelings
or needs, allowing others to express themselves. Frequently, a passive
communicator’s lack of outward communication can lead to misunderstanding,
anger build-up or resentment. At the same time, these communicators can be
safer to speak with when a conflict arises, because they most likely will avoid
a confrontation or defer to others. Passive communicators often display a lack
of eye contact, poor body posture and an inability to say “no.”
Passive communicators also act in a way that states “people never consider
my feelings.” But passive communicators are also easy to get along with as
they follow others and “go with the flow.” Examples of phrases that those who
use a passive communication style would say or may believe include: “It really
doesn’t matter that much” or “I just want to keep the peace”
UNIT
V
Aggressive
It’s often apparent when someone communicates in an aggressive
manner. You’ll hear it. You’ll see it. You may even feel it. The
aggressive communication style is emphasized by speaking in a loud
and demanding voice, maintaining intense eye contact and
dominating or controlling others by blaming, intimidating,
criticizing, threatening or attacking them, among other traits.
Aggressive communicators often issue commands, ask questions
rudely and fail to listen to others. But they can also be considered
leaders and command respect from those around them. Examples of
phrases that an aggressive communicator would use include: “I’m
right and you’re wrong.” “I’ll get my way no matter what.” “It’s all
your fault.”
UNIT
V
Passive-Aggressive
Passive-aggressive communication style users appear passive on the surface, but
within he or she may feel powerless or stuck, building up a resentment that leads to
seething or acting out in subtle, indirect or secret ways. Most passive-aggressive
communicators will mutter to themselves rather than confront a person or issue.
They have difficulty acknowledging their anger, use facial expressions that don’t
correlate with how they feel and even deny there is a problem. Passive-aggressive
communicators are most likely to communicate with body language or a lack of
open communication to another person, such as giving someone the silent
treatment, spreading rumors behind people’s backs or sabotaging others’ efforts.
Passive-aggressive communicators may also appear cooperative, but may silently be
doing the opposite. Ultimately, passive-aggressive communicators are aware of their
needs, but at times struggle to voice them. Examples of phrases that a passive-
aggressive communicator would use include: * “That’s fine with me, but don’t be
surprised if someone else gets mad.” “Sure, we can do things your way” (then
mutters to self that “your way” is stupid).
UNIT
V
Assertive
Thought to be the most effective form of communication, the
assertive communication style features an open communication link
while not being overbearing. Assertive communicators can express
their own needs, desires, ideas and feelings, while also considering
the needs of others.
Assertive communicators aim for both sides to win in a situation,
balancing one’s rights with the rights of others.
UNIT
V
The Manipulative Style
This style is scheming, calculating and shrewd. Manipulative
communicators are skilled at influencing or controlling others to
their own advantage. Their spoken words hide an underlying
message, of which the other person may be totally unaware.
Effective ways for better Speech UNIT
Communication V
Logical Sequence: In speech, ideas should be organized
sequentially so that the receivers or audience may get clear
sense of the whole speech. No irrelevant idea should be
included in the speech.
Natural Voice: Speech should be delivered at natural tone of
the speaker. Unnatural or unusual voice may distort the
meaning of the message. The voice of the speaker should be
clear and pleasant also.
Speaking Slowly: The speaker should speak slowly so that
the audience can understand him easily. If the speaker
delivers his speech very rapidly, the audience may fail to
understand or follow him instantly.
Communication V
Taking preparation: A person or speaker must take necessary
preparation before delivering his speech before the audience. Before
presenting something he should have proper planning regarding the
topic, audience, timing, place, etc. A well planned or well prepared
presentation must be able to attract the attention of the audience.
Avoiding Mannerism: The speaker must avoid mannerism, if he has
any. Because it irritates the audience. Making unnecessary sound
repeatedly, fidgeting fingers, scratching heads, unnecessary body
movement etc. must be avoided at the time of delivering speech.
Using Visual Aids: Visual aids can make the speech or oral
presentation more interesting and livelier. The speaker can use slides,
multimedia projector, overhead projector, whiteboard etc to make his
presentation vivid and magnificent.
Communication V
Using Body Language: In speech or presentation, the speaker must
attract the attention of the audience through positive body
language. Eye contact, smile, nods, fingering etc are important
body movements or languages that help to retain the attention of
the audience
Clear Pronunciation: Clear pronunciation is an important quality
of a speaker. The success of speech largely depends on it. Clear
pronunciation means distinct uttering of words with required pitch
and intensity of voice.
Emphasizing on Important Topic: The speaker should emphasize on
important topic so that audience can pay full attention to his
speech. It’s up to the speaker how he will determine the relative
importance of different parts of his speech.
LANGUAGE AND SOCIAL CLASS UNIT VI
REPORTER TOPIC(s)
Nicole Justine Alejo 6.1 Restricted and Elaborated Speech Variants
Mary Milagros Dalisay 6.2 Two kinds of social formation
Cinch Charles Corres 6.3 Role systems and codes
Jelly Mae Cristobal 6.4 Codes and social class

UNIT
Restricted and Elaborated Speech Variants
VI
• These terms introduced by the British sociologist Basil
Bernstein in the 1960s, referring to two varieties (or
codes) of language use, seen as part of a general theory
of the nature of the social systems and social rules.
• “Restricted and elaborated codes” refers to the different

use of verbal language by different groups of people in
different situation.
UNIT
Restricted and Elaborated Speech Variants
VI
Restricted code Elaborated code
 Is a working class person communicates as a result  Is for the middle class person with the exception
of the conditions in which they were raised and the that they were exposed
socialisation process.  Used in relatively formal, educated situations
 Informal everyday language permitting people to be reasonably creative in
 Slang their expression and to use a range of linguistic
 Often ungrammatical alternatives
 Limited explanations and vocabulary  It has a wider vocabulary with more complex
 Adequate for friends and family grammar
 Used more by working- class families but is used by  Explanation and detail required
all  Conversation is harder to predict
 It reinforces group identity or feelings of sameness  Greater focus on ideas or theories
 Speakers draw on background knowledge and  Speakers have no prior or shared understanding
shared understanding and knowledge

UNIT
Two kinds of Social Formation
VI
A social formation refers to a society (a social structure at any level such as a nation, city,
business, university, or even a family) with all its complexities, as it is historically
constituted. It includes all the internal contradictions that exist in a society, all emerging
and disappearing tendencies in the economy and superstructure, in the social relationships
that comprise these.
One defining element of a social formation is the emerging tendency of mode of
production (what arising vs. what is declining). It includes all the contradictions between
different modes of production, as well as inside specific modes of production, and in new
modes of production that attempt to appear or do appear (such as the drug business
establishing its own social formation: its own state, military, superstructure, production,
distribution) - even when these may be intertwined, to various degrees, with the larger
social formation within which it exists.
The concept also refers to all the social classes and the intricate contradictory unity
of their relations, which constitute the structure of class struggle and which detectable by
class struggle. This includes the way class ideologically concepts for reproduction. Each
class has a resistance to its disappearance and struggles to continue to exist, to reproduce
itself.
UNIT
VI
The reproduction of the relations of production is the key to the historical correspondence
between base and superstructure (and the determinant role of production). The forms
superstructure takes shape-in that the dominant modes of production interact with affect
the superstructure in ways that facilitate their own reproduction. A social formation
materially manifested as the totality of the relations of classes at all levels: the relations of
production and circulation (including those which are not directly economic produce an
economic effect), and of the superstructure (political, judicial, and ideological relations).
One social formation has a pertinent (external) effect on another, but this impacts the
internal dynamic (i.e.: imperialism from outside causes deformed capitalism internally).
There is no general theory that can guide us to understand any particular social
formation in itself. It is a very theoretical abstract concept. We need to break away from any
approach that tries to define social formation through models or quotations, which is not
possible.
Each social formation only exists historically in a concrete form. It must defined as it
is, in its particularity. So far, most analysis is too general, very empirical and abstract. We
don't have any thorough or even adequate analysis of specific social formations.
UNIT
VI
We can use the methods of historical materialism and dialectics to analyse social
formation. This theory and analysis will necessarily be in a constant mode
production/reproduction, to correspond to the constant development of the social
formation it is describing.
These methods will help us understand the historical mode and tendency social
formation and the historical tendency of classes within it. For example, national
bourgeoisie has a tendency of nationalism; the bureaucratic bourgeoisie has tendency of
nationalism which is different (reactionary)-these need to be understood within their own
dynamics.
To define a social formation, we have to understand/appropriate the
superstructure, the mode it takes historically at each moment, as it takes shape and
reproduces itself (as determined by the mode of production), and how it is affected by
class struggle. For example, in understanding the judicial system historically, as it uses
legality to reproduce the mode of production, we can see that all laws in the U.S. are
against the working class and repress the petit bourgeoisie, in order to guarantee the
dominance of the bourgeoisie over the working class.
UNIT
Role systems and codes
VI
Role, in sociology, the behaviour expected of an individual who occupies a given social
position or status. A role is a comprehensive pattern of the behaviour that is socially
recognized, providing a means of identifying and placing an individual in a society. It also
serves as a strategy for coping with current situations and dealing with the roles of others
(e.g., parent-children roles). The term, borrowed from theatrical usage, emphasizes the
distinction between the actor and the part.
A role remains relatively stable even though different people occupy the position: any
individual assigned the role of physician, like any actor in the role of Hamlet, is expected
to behave in a particular way. An individual may have a unique style, but this is exhibited
within the boundaries of the expected behaviour.
Codes refer to the communication that individuals use to convey a message; this
implies that language codes are based on some language.
UNIT
Codes and social class
VI
The Elaborated and Restricted code submit were regarded as functions of different forms
of social relationships. The codes were thought to entail qualitatively different verbal
planning orientations which control different modes of self- regulation and levels of
cognitive behaviour.
Social Class differences in the use of these codes were expected. Speech samples were
obtained and the hesitation phenomena analysed, from a discussion situation involving
small groups of middle and working class subject with varying I.Q. profiles.
It was found that the middle class groups used a shorter phrase length and a longer pause
interval than the working-class group. These differences in the hesitation phenomena were
sharper when working-class and middle-class groups matched for intelligence on a group
verbal and non- verbal test were compared. It was considered that the members of the two
class groups were oriented to qualitatively different levels of verbal planning which control
lexicon and structural selections. The working-class groups were thought to be making
selections from a lower level of the linguistic hierarchy; whilst the middle-class group
subjects irrespective of verbal I.Q. were oriented to making selections from a higher level
of the hierarchy.
LANGUAGE AND SOCIAL UNIT
INTERACTIONS VII
REPORTER TOPIC(s)
Hannah Mae Lopez 7.1 Doing Things with Words
Kaycee T. Gomez 7.2 Adjacency Pair
Mae Anne A. Escaño 7.3 Social Relations and Management Discourse
Alejandra De Guzman Delos Santos 7.4 Types of Social Relations

UNIT
Doing Things with Words
VII
In speech-act theory, a locutionary act is the act of making a
meaningful utterance, a stretch of spoken language that is
preceded by silence and followed by silence or a change of speaker.
An illocutionary act refers to the performance of an act in saying
something specific (as opposed to the general act of just saying
something). The illocutionary force is the speaker's intent. It is a
true 'speech act' such as informing, ordering, warning, and
undertaking.
An example of an illocutionary act would be:
"The black cat is stupid."
This statement is assertive; it is an illocutionary act in that it
intends to communicate.
UNIT
Doing Things with Words
VII
Perlocutionary acts are external to the
performance; they are inspiring, persuading, or
deterring.
This is an example of a perlocutionary act:
"Please find the black cat."
This statement is a perlocutionary act because it
seeks to change behavior. (The speaker wants
you to drop whatever you are doing and go find
her cat.)
UNIT
Adjacency Pair
VII
Is a two part exchange which the second utterance is functionally
dependent on the first as exhibited in conventional greetings,
invitation and requests.
Also known as the concept of nextness
Generally considered as the smallest unit of conversational exchange.
Characteristic of Adjacency Pair

1. It is consist of 2 utterances.
2. The utterances are adjacent, that the first immediately follows the
second.
3. Different speakers produce each utterance.
UNIT
Adjacency Pair
VII
Kinds of Exchanges
1. Question/ Answer
A: What is your name?
B: I am Maria
2. Complaint/Denial
A: Defendant`s last payment under the contract was in April 2008.
B: Defendant`s last payment was in April 2005.

3. Offer/Accept
A: Will you marry me?
B: Yes I will.
UNIT
Adjacency Pair
VII
4. Request/Grant
A: Can you sing for me?
B: Oh! Sure
5. Compliment/Rejection
A: You are stunning tonight!
B: Not really.
6. Challenge/Rejection
A: I challenge you to do the Dalagang Filipina challenge.
B: I am not interested
7. Instruct/Receipt
A: Get my car key under my bed at the right side of it.
B: Okay, Got it.
UNIT
Social Relations and Management Discourse
VII
In social science, a social relation or social interaction is any relationship
between two or more individuals. Social relation derived from individual
agency form the basis of social structure and the basic object for analysis by
social scientists. Fundamental inquires into the nature of social relations
feature I work of sociologists such as Max Weber in his theory is social action.
Max Weber (1864 - 1920)
- father of sociology
*Weber four types of Social Action*
1. Traditional Social Action
- actions controlled by tradition. "The way it has always been done."
2. Affective Social Action
- actions determined by one's specific affections and emotional state, you do
not think about the consequences.
UNIT
Social Relations and Management Discourse
VII
3. Value Rational Social Action
- actions that are determined by conscious beliefs in the inherent
value of a type of behaviour (example: religion)
4. Instrumental-Rational Social Action
- actions that are carried out to achieve a certain goal, you do
something because it leads to result .
Categorizing social interactions enables observational and other

social research, such as Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft
(community and society) collective consciousness etc. However
current schools and theories of sociology and other social sciences
dispute the methods used for such investigation.
UNIT
Types of Social Relations
VII
According to Piotr Sztompka, forms of relation and interaction in sociology and
anthropology may be described as follows:
1. Animal-like Behavior it is about the various physical movements of the of the body or the
"signal" or the suite of interactions that occur between two or more individual animals, usually
of the same species, when they form simple aggregations, cooperate in sexual or parental
behaviour, engage in disputes over territory and access to mates, or simply communicate
across space.
2. Social behavior or Social action which address other people, which solicit a response from
another agent. Examples of it in the way individuals interact during a party, meeting, athletic
event, or any other gathering.
3. Social Contacts which from the beginning of social interactions. And the number of various
types of social contacts also matters. Examples of it include social relationships with family
members and relatives as well as contacts with neighbours and friends.
In additional, Symbols define social relationships. Without symbols, our social life
would be no more superior/high level than animals. And Symbolic integrations
analyze how social life depends on the ways we define ourselves and others.
UNIT
LANGUAGE AND GENDER VIII
REPORTER TOPIC(s)
8.1 Sexist and Non-sexist Lanuage
Missy Ramones
8.2 Gender fair vs Gender neutral Language
8.3 Gender Differences

Jewelyn Caasi
8.4 Generic Pronoun
8.5 Gender Noun

Angelica Ricarte
8.6 Proper Noun
8.7 Common Gender Biased Terms and Bias-free Substitute

Maureen Ramos
8.8 Alternatives for Male-Based language
UNIT
Language and Gender
VIII
• Sex – refers to the biological differences
between male and female such as the
genitalia and genetic differences given at
birth
• Gender – refers to the role of a male and
female in the society, known as gender role
or individual’s concept of themselves or
gender identity
UNIT
Types of Gender
VIII
• Masculine Gender – a noun that denotes a male animal or living
being for example: boy, king, actor, dog etc.
• Feminine Gender – a noun that denote a female animal or living
being example: girl, queen, actress etc.
• Common Gender – noun that denotes male or female example:
people, person, enemy, relative, cousin, thief, students etc.
• Neutral gender – noting or relating to a word or phrase that does
not refer to one gender only. Example: fire fighter, flight
attendant
• Gender Queer – also known as non-binary, is a catch all category
for gender identities that are not exclusively masculine or
feminine.
UNIT
Sexist Language and non-sexist Language
VIII
• Sexist language - is language that excludes either men or women
when discussing a topic that is applicable to both sexist
• Considered language bias in language
• Sexism – is discrimination on the basis of gender
• Generic Use of “man” and “he” – is commonly considered gender
neutral
• Not gender-neutral terms at all
• Not interpreted gender neutral
• Is problematic
UNIT
Reason for Avoiding generic ‘man” and “ he”
VIII
Addressing the Professional

Sexual Stereotyping: Distortion and Silence
Through embodying explicit and implicit sexual stereotypes
Through adopting a male perspective
Through silence-the absence of example explicit referring to a
women
UNIT
Non-sexist Language
VIII
is language whose “ use creates, constitutes, promotes or exploits

an unfair or irrelevant distinction between the sexist
• Eliminate the generic use of he by:
• Using plural nouns
• Deleting ‘he’,’his’,and ‘him’ altogether
• Substituting articles ( the, an, a)
• Substituting ‘one’, ‘we’ or ‘you’
• Minimizing the use of indefinite pronouns (everybody, someone)
• Using the passive voice
• Substituting nouns for pronouns
• Eliminate the generic use of man
UNIT
Non-sexist Language
VIII
• For man substitute ‘person’/people’, individual(s)’, ‘human(s)’,’human being(s)’
• For ‘mankind’, substitute ‘adulthood’, ‘maturity’
• Delete unnecessary references to generic ‘man’
• Eliminate sexism when addressing persons formally
• Using ‘Ms.” Instead of ‘Miss” or ‘mrs.” Even when the woman's marital status is known
• Using a married woman's first name instead of her husband’s
• Using corresponding titles for females ( ‘Ms.”, ‘dr.’, ‘Prof.’) whenever a title is appropriate for males
• Using ‘Dear colleague’ or ‘ Editor’ or ‘Professor’,etc. in letters to unknown persons (instead of ‘Drear Sir’ or ,
‘Gentlemen’)
• Eliminate sexual stereotyping of roles
• Using the same term (which avoids the generic ‘man’) for both females and males or using the corresponding verb (‘to
chair’)
• Not calling attention to irrelevancies (‘lady lawyer’, ‘male nurse’)
UNIT
Gender Fair VS. Gender Neutral Language
VIII
Gender Fair Language – minimize unnecessary concern about gender in your subject
matter, allowing both you and your reader to focus on what people do rather than on what
sex happen to be.
Example:
Original: If the researcher is the principal investigator, he should place an
asterisk after his name.
Gender Fair: Place an asterisk after the name of the principal investigator
Gender Neutral Language – or gender inclusive language, is language that avoids bias
towards a particular sex or social gender.
Example
UNIT
VIII
UNIT
Gender Differences in Communication
VIII
Masculine and feminine cultures and individuals generally differ in how they
communicate with others.
Masculine People Feminine People
 are more likely to communicate
 expect competition in their
weakness and vulnerabilities.
friendship.
 often feel closer to their friends.
 they avoid communicating
personal and emotional
 tend to value their friends for
concerns. listening and communicating
non-critically, communicating
 tend to communicate with each
support, communicating
other shoulder-to-shoulder(e.g.,
feelings of enhanced self-
watching sports on a television).
esteem, communicating
 tend to communicate with each validation, offering comfort and
other shoulder-to-shoulder(e.g., contributing personal growth.
watching sports on a television).  tend to communicate with each
other face-to-face ( e.g.,
meeting together to talk over
lunch).
UNIT
Generic Pronoun
VIII
Generic Pronoun is used to describe

and undetermined group of people or
a non-specific group of people.
UNIT
YOU
VIII
So first, lets take the word "you“
Yeah, usually when I say you, I am talking about you but sometimes when I use the
word you I am talking about all people in general, all people in the world. We can
use the word you to meet anybody or all people.

Example: When it rains, you get wet.
It doesn't mean that only you get wet, it means all people get wet in this condition.
UNIT
ONE
VIII
The second one is "one“
One is basically means any person like you but when we use the word one,
it's a little bit more formal. We don't usually say one in spoken English, we
usually say you but in written English sometimes people say one.

Example: How does one say this word in English?
Or
One should never drink before driving.
UNIT
THEY
VIII
And the last one is "they“
Of course it can use to talk about the group of people who's not part of our group. "They"
Example: They like rock music, we don't.
But we can also use the word they when were talking about an authority.
Example: They say smoking is bad for you.
Here, we gave the doctor some kind of authority but we don't say that the doctor told us it but we say "they".
We can also use the pronoun "they" to talk about one person if we don't know if a person is a man o woman / we
don't know the person is, we can say they.
Example: Someone forgot their bag.

But it's not about many people, It's about one person.
UNIT
Gendered Noun
VIII
- it is a genderless noun
- Nouns answer the questions “What is it?”
and “Who is it?” They give names to things,
people, and places. Examples are dog,
bicycle, Mary, girl, beauty, France and world.
In general there is no distinction between masculine and feminine in English nouns.
However, gender is sometimes shown by different forms or different words when referring UNIT
to people or animals.
Example: VIII
Many nouns that refer to people’s roles and jobs can be used for
either a masculine or a feminine subject, like for example cousin,
UNIT
teenager, teacher, doctor, student, friend, and colleague. VIII
EXAMPLES
Mary is my friend. She is a doctor.
Arthur is my friend. He is a student
It is possible to make distinction for these neutral words by adding the words male or female.

EXAMPLES
Sam is a female doctor.
No, he is not my boyfriend, he is just a male friend.
Infrequently, nouns describing things without a gender are referred to with a gendered pronoun to show familiarity. It is also correct to
use the gender-neutral pronoun (it).

EXAMPLES
I love my car. She (the car) is my greatest passion.
I travelled from England to New York on the Queen Elizabeth: she (the Queen Elizabeth) is a great ship.

UNIT
Proper nouns
VIII
a name that identifies particular person, place or thing.

Two distinct features of Proper Nouns
1.) They name specific one-of-a-kind items

2.) They begin with capital letters, no matter where they occur
within a sentence
In the following sentences, proper noun examples are compared with
common nouns. Notice that the proper nouns are specific and unique,
UNIT
while the common nouns are much more general in nature. VIII
Common Noun: I want to be a writer.

Proper Noun: Agatha Christie wrote many books.
Common Noun: I’d like to adopt a cat.

Proper Noun: Cleopatra is the cutest kitten ever.
Common Noun: Would you like a cookie?
Proper Noun: I’m craving Oreos.
Common Noun: Let’s go to the city.
Proper Noun: Let’s go to San Francisco.
Common Noun: My teacher starts work before sunup.
Proper Noun: Mr. Bell seems to understand what students need.
UNIT
How to use Proper Nouns
VIII
It’s easy to use proper nouns, once you

know what they are. Simply place them in
your sentences as you would common
nouns, ensuring that you capitalize them.
COMMON GENDER-BIASED TERMS AND BIAS- UNIT
FREE SUBSTITUTES VIII
What is Gender-Biased Language?
• If language is gender biased, it favours a certain gender over another.

• In the case of English, the particular bias is usually the preference of the masculine over the feminine.
• ·At first glance, it would appear that gender bias is built into the English language. Rules of grammar
once dictated that we use masculine pronouns (he, his, him, himself) whenever a singular referent is
required and we don’t know the gender of the person we’re talking about
• ·Though this practice has been changing there are still some words that we use regularly that include
the feminine. Consider the following examples: Workmen’s Compensation, mankind, chairman, man-
made.
What about in writing?
• You may be practicing gender-biased language even if you don’t know it!!
• Reflect on your writing and ask yourself:
• 1. Do I typecast all men as leaders, all women as dependents?
• 2. Do I associate seriousness only with men and emotionalism only with women?
• 3. Do I refer to women according to physical appearance and men according to
their personal status?
• Considering bias is especially important when reporting true-life events. Think about how you might interpret the
following sentence: The admirable Dr. William Hicks and his wife Mary, an attractive former model, both showed
up at the party.
• When addressing a reader
• NEVER assume that the person reading your story/article will be male.
• If you do not know the gender of the person on the receiving end of a letter, write, “Dear Madam or Sir,” or “Dear
Personnel Officer” but NOT “Dear Sir,” or “Dear Gentlemen” unless you know for sure who will be reading the
letter.
• As far as fiction goes, Charlotte Bronte did it best in Jane Eyre when she addressed her audience, “Reader, I
married him.”
UNIT
What can you do?
VIII
• Just keep it in mind. If you refer to a man by his full name, refer to a woman by her full name.
• Use parallel terms (“husband and wife” instead of “man and wife”)
• Eliminate gratuitous physical description. If you write fiction, just remember to avoid stereotyping,
and instead focus on the personality of your characters.
• We’re all talented writers; let’s use our creativity instead of falling back on old gender-biased usage!
• How can you avoid gender-biased language in your writing?
• Here are some helpful examples. In each case, try to picture exactly what the sentence is saying so
you can see the difference between biased and non-biased language.
UNIT
What can you do?
VIII
• Use the plural.
• 1. Biased: A nurse is trained to understand her patients’ emotions as well as physical symptoms.
• 2. Better: Nurses are trained to understand their patients’ emotions as well as physical symptoms.
• Eliminate the pronoun or reword to avoid using a pronoun.

• 1. Biased: The average teenager worries about his physical fitness.
• 2. Better: The average teenager worries about physical fitness.
UNIT
What can you do?
VIII
• Replace the pronoun with one, he, or she, or an article (a, an, the).
• 1. Biased: The parent who reads to her infant cares for her infant’s intellectual growth
• 2. Better: The parent who reads to an infant cares for the infant’s intellectual growth.
• Repeat a title rather than using a pronoun.
• 1. Biased: Ask a fire-fighter for help, and he will get your kitten out of the tree.
• 2. Better: Ask a fire-fighter for help, and the fire-fighter will get your kitten out of the tree.
UNIT
Alternate male and female examples.
VIII
• 1. With this, be careful not to confuse your reader; don't bounce

back and forth in a confusing way: Confusing example: A young
child is often persuaded by advertisements to buy what he sees
on television. When she goes shopping with a parent, she sees
the product on the shelf, remembers it, and asks to have it.
UNIT
ALTERNATIVES FOR MALE-BASED LANGUAGE
VIII
This list of sexist terms shows not only what may be avoided but also how they
may be avoided.
If in the company of people who are made uncomfortable by sexist terms, there
is a polite and linguistically acceptable alternative in most cases. The often
quoted "person aperture cover" for "man hole" is both a hoax and a parody of
the intention of the language. The following are becoming increasingly accepted
and mostly are no longer an issue of contention.
The following checklist of alternatives to sexist language
was produced by a publisher giving advice to authors.
UNIT
1. Do you agree with the premise that the "words to be avoided" are in fact sexist?
2. Do you agree that the "words to be preferred" are suitable?
VIII
3. Explain your decisions and suggest better alternatives where possible.
UNIT
ALTERNATIVES FOR MALE-BASED LANGUAGE
VIII
If the gender of the person being discussed is unknown or could be either

female or male, there are several alternatives. One is to use 'She or he should
show his/her tickets', or even "S/he should show ..." (only common on forms and
questionnaires). Another is to use the plural "Customers should show their
tickets" or to use the second person pronoun instead - "Please show your
ticket." Use of the passive is an alternative though it may lead to less clarity -
"Tickets should be shown."
UNIT
The Female Leader VIII
 In March 2012 Dr Clare Gerada, chairwoman [sic] of the Royal College of General Practitioners, spoke
out against male NHS executives for their use of sexist language and of portraying her approach to
negotiations as "emotional" and "naive" because she was a woman.
 Gerada said that if she had been a male leader she would have been referred to as "strong willed" or
"open minded" but instead was described as "naive."
In an interview with the Sunday Times (accompanied by a rather unsympathetic and harshly lit portrait
of her) she said, "... the language used is slightly pejorative. So I have been, for example, "passionate"
and "naive" or "emotional". I have never heard a man called "emotional" or "naive". I would not use
these words in a professional context."
Can we be neutral? UNIT
VIII
Many attempts have been made to devise new and

neutral pronouns, though none has become common.
S/he is possibly the nearest to popularity. Consider
rephrasing to use plural pronouns which are non sex
specific ("they" instead of "he" and "she").
Transgender Sensitivity UNIT
VIII
• In 2016 UK Education Secretary Nicky Morgan introduced equalities legislation on lesbian,
gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) issues. Subsequently the Girls' Schools Association
(GSA) advised school heads to use gender neutral words such as "pupils", "people" or
"students" instead of "girls," "young women" or "young ladies." They should not use the word
"girls" in case it upsets and discriminates against pupils who question their gender identity.
According to a report in The Sunday Times, 19th June 2016, "The advice on stamping out
discriminatory language also applies to single-sex schools for boys such as Eton College."
• "Jay Stewart, chairman of Gendered Intelligence, said about 1% of the population were
transgender and could start to feel they were the wrong sex from as young as four."
• Many teachers in mixed sex schools, which comprise the vast majority of UK schools, have
always used inclusive terms such as "boys and girls", or even "folks" and referred generically
to them as "youngsters", "students" or "pupils" or "class" as in "right class, let's settle down" or
"come on now, year 10".
UNIT
Spivak gender
VIII
The idea behind Spivak gender is to replace our current set of gendered pronouns with a genderless set. This
provides a degree of vagueness about identity and sexual orientation conducive to more adventurous e-mail
postings.
A proposed set of "Spivak gender" pronouns includes "e, em, eir, eirs, eirself, sie." In Spivak-speak, "She talks
to herself,' would become "Sie talks to eirself," "sie" being a substitute for both "he" and "she."
In a survey of 100 authors by Ben Blatt, male authors were seen to write "she screamed" more often than
female writers and "she kissed" more often than "he kissed."
He also found a greater probability in classic fiction that female chaaracters "shivered, wept, murmured,
screamed and married" whereas male characters "muttered, grinned, shouted, chuckled and killed."
UNIT
Generally useful advice
VIII
1.Do not assume that the male should always come first, so alternate she and he,
hers and his, wives and husbands.
2.Neutral 'spouse' or 'partner' may be preferable in some cases to 'husband' or 'wife',

and 'partner' may be the only suitable term for same-sex couples or for unmarried
couples for whom "boyfriend" or "girlfriend" has been outgrown.
3.Neutral 'sibling' may be preferable in some cases to sister and brother.
4.Aim to use equivalent terms for both genders: boy/girl; man/woman; lady/gentleman.
LANGUAGE AND SOCIETY
AND SUB-SYSTEMS UNIT IX
REPORTER TOPIC(s)
Elaine Morandarte 9.1 Family
Noriko Ishikawa 9.2 School
James Daryll Payongayong 9.3 Church

Janice Jaranilla 9.4 Government
Jeamalyn Arcillas 9.5 Non- Government Institutions
UNIT
Family
IX
Families differ in terms of economic, cultural, social, and many other facets, but what every family has in
common is that the people who call it a family are making clear that those people are important in some
way to the person calling them his family.
Definition of Family
The dictionary defines family in several ways. One definition is "a fundamental social group in society
typically consisting of one or two parents and their children." While this definition is a good starting point,
there are several modern family structures that are excluded by this definition, such as childless couples
or other variations on the family unit. Another definition is "Two or more people who share goals and
values, have long-term commitments to one another and reside usually in the same dwelling."
In the most basic definition, a group of people who share a legal bond or a blood bond is a family.
UNIT
Family
IX
Legal Bonds: Families are legally bound through marriages, adoptions, and guardianships, including
the rights, duties, and obligations of those legal contracts. Legal bonds can be changed, expanded,
or dissolved to change the composition of a family.
Blood Bonds: Individuals who are directly related through a common ancestor are part of a family.
This includes both close and distant relatives such as siblings, parents, grandparents, aunts, uncles,
nieces, nephews, and cousins. Researching a family tree or genealogical records can reveal familial
blood bonds.
Despite the apparent simplicity of this definition of family, the idea of family goes far beyond just legal
or blood relationships for many people.
UNIT
Family
IX
While the direct legal and genetic relationships you share with others can help you create your definition of family,
there is more to family relationships than these basic concepts. A true family provides its members with emotional and
spiritual kinship through:
• Shared values, beliefs, and traditions
• Common experiences and activities
• Unconditional, non-judgmental support
In many ways, different individuals relate to groups of people who provide them with emotional and spiritual
connection as family, even if they share no legal or genetic bonds. For example, a church "family" has spiritual
connections and shared values, even though its members are not formally related. Similarly, a work family has
common experiences and share activities in long-term relationships without formal bonds. College fraternities and
sororities often share familial bonds through experiences and consider one another brothers and sisters without formal
relationships. With social networking technology, many people are even creating online or virtual families of individuals
who share their beliefs, hobbies, and values even if they have never met in person.
UNIT
Family
IX
While the direct legal and genetic relationships you share with others can help you create your definition of family,
there is more to family relationships than these basic concepts. A true family provides its members with emotional and
spiritual kinship through:
• Shared values, beliefs, and traditions
• Common experiences and activities
• Unconditional, non-judgmental support
In many ways, different individuals relate to groups of people who provide them with emotional and spiritual
connection as family, even if they share no legal or genetic bonds. For example, a church "family" has spiritual
connections and shared values, even though its members are not formally related. Similarly, a work family has
common experiences and share activities in long-term relationships without formal bonds. College fraternities and
sororities often share familial bonds through experiences and consider one another brothers and sisters without formal
relationships. With social networking technology, many people are even creating online or virtual families of individuals
who share their beliefs, hobbies, and values even if they have never met in person.
UNIT
Family
IX
The definition of family is constantly evolving, and every

person can define family in a different way to encompass
the relationships she shares with people in her life. Over
time one's family will change as one's life changes and the
importance of family values and rituals deepen. Every
member who is truly family will help make it richer.
UNIT
Family
IX
Who Makes a Family?
The traditional family consists of a father, mother and children. This is the family shown on
television as the standard family. However, the 21st century showcases a variety of family
units, some very different from the standard of the 1950s. Today, children are also often
raised in single parent homes, by grandparents or by homosexual parents. Some families
opt to have no children, or cannot have children due to some medical or emotional barrier.
The idea that parents and children make a family is a basic definition; however, in order to
accurately acknowledge other family structures, a broader definition is necessary. In addition
to a more universal family definition, there are also plenty of people who consider a group of
friends to be family, and adults who consider pets -- from goldfish to horses -- as defining
members of the family unit.
UNIT
Family
IX
Friends as Family
Many people consider friends to be as close or even closer than extended (or
immediate) family. People who have lost close family members may create a family
unit of friends with similar interests and goals to become replacements or
enhancements to a lacking family structure. This type of family unit, while
untraditional, can be just as close, if not closer, than a traditional structure. Friends
are chosen by an individual; at times, these people may be more special or
important than the family a person was born with. In addition, some people who
have supportive families also have an extensive network of friends who they
consider to be a second family or as additions to their blood or legal relatives.
UNIT
Family
IX
Pets as Family
Pets can also become members of a family unit. Pets add an
element of responsibility to a family, particularly for children. For
couples who cannot, or choose not to, have children, pets can be a
replacement and be loved as dearly as children. Pets, such as dogs
and cats, are cared for as additional family members by many people
and are mourned as such as well when they pass away.
UNIT
Family
IX
Types of Families
There are many different types of families, each of which is equally viable as a supportive, caring unit.
1. Nuclear Family
Also called a conjugal family, this is the parents and their children living in the same residence or
sharing the closest bonds.
2. Extended Family
This type of family includes all relatives in close proximity, such as grandparents, aunts, uncles,
and cousins. In a family household that is extended, these relatives typically live together and all share
daily household duties. This type of family is also called a joint family or multigenerational family
depending on which members are included.
UNIT
Family
IX
Types of Families
3. Complex Family
This type of extended family has three or more adults plus their children. This type of family may be
formed through divorce and remarriage, or it may be formed through polygamy in societies where that
practice is acceptable. Some families may be complex even without formal legal bonds between the
adults.
4. Step Family
This is a family where the adults have divorced and remarried, bringing children from other unions
together to form a new nuclear family. The children may come from several different parents or be on
one or both sides of the new union.
UNIT
Family
IX
Types of Families
5. Traditional Family
This is a family unit defined in the classic sense as the father working outside the home to support
the members financially, while the mother remains at home and tends to domestic duties and child-
rearing. This strict definition of family is less and less common in modern society.
6. Adopted Family
This type of family shares legal bonds but not genetic ones. Two parents may adopt a child to
whom they share no blood relationship, or one parent may adopt the child of the other parent. Adopted
families can also be defined in an emotional or spiritual sense where no formal legal bonds are present.
UNIT
School
IX
School is an institution designed to provide learning spaces learning
environment for the teaching of students under the direction of
teachers.
School is commonly organized in several different organizational
models, including departmental, small leaning communities,
academies, integrated, and schools within a school.
UNIT
School
IX
Educational stages:
• Kindergarten/Pre-school, for young children (typically ages 3-5).
• Primary School, for young children.

• Secondary School, for teenagers who have completed primary school.
• University college / University, it is an institution where higher education is taught.
2 types of school:
• Public school, government school.
• Private school, non-government school.
• Religious school (Catholic, Christian schools)

UNIT
School
IX
School for adults:
• Institutions of corporate training
• Military education and training

• Business schools
Others:
Homeschooling is known as home education is the education of children at home or a

variety of other places. Home education is usually conducted by a parent or tutor or online
teacher.
Online school teaches students online or through internet.

UNIT
Church
IX
A church Building, often simply called a Church, is a building used for religious activities particularly worship services.
The term in its architectural sense is most often used by Christians to refer to their religious building they can be used
by other religious. In traditional Christianity Architecture, the church is often arranged in the shape of a Christian
Cross. When viewed from plan view the longest part of a cross is represented by the Aisle and the junction of the
cross is located at the altar area.
Towers or domes are often added with the intention of directing the eye of the viewer towards the heavens and
inspiring church visitors. Modern church buildings have a variety of now been converted for church use; and similarly,
many original church buildings have been put to other uses.
The earliest Identified Christian Church was a house church founded between 233 and 256. During the 11th through
14th centuries, a wave of building of cathedrals and smaller parish churches occurred across Western Europe. A
cathedral is a church, usually Roman Catholic, Anglican, Oriental Orthodox, or Eastern Orthodox, Housing the seat of
a Bishop.
UNIT
Church
IX
FUNCTIONS OF CHURCH IN SOCIETY
 The basic function of the church is to be involved in very facet of the life of the believer. Holdings true to this
mission, Christ looked at the needs of the people, provided it, and then begun to preach out the good deeds.
SOCIAL AND COMMUNITY FUNCTIONS OF CHURCHES

 Christians believe that it is a part of their duty to act in a moral way and this involves helping others around them.
The Church can play a Vital Role in Christians helping others as they Provide:
1. FOOD BANKS
 A place where people living in poverty can go collect some food.
2. SALVATION ARMY
 A Christian denomination who helps those who are suffering.
UNIT
Church
IX
3. HELP FOR THE HOMELESS
 Housing justice is a Christian Charity who tries to ensure everyone has a home.
4. LOCAL CHURCHES
 The local churches are a Christian movement which was started in china. As per the movement
all Christians "who have left the denominations, the divisive sects, and stand on the proper ground
are a local church in their locality." Members of the group also believe that Christian believers
should emphasize the subjective experience of Christ as well as Bible interpretation concerning
Christ and the church.
UNIT
Church
IX
5. ECCLESIA (CHURCH)
 Christian Church is an ecclesiological term generally used by Protestants to refer to the Church
invisible, and/or whole group of people belonging to Christianity throughout the history of
Christianity. In this understanding, "Christian Church" does not refer to a particular Christian
denomination but to the "body" of all "believers", both defined in various ways. Other Christian
traditions, however, believe that the term "Christian Church" or "Church" applies only to a specific
concrete historic Christian institution, e.g. the Catholic church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the
Oriental Orthodox Church, or the Assyrian Church of the East).
UNIT
Church
IX
6. ECCLESIASTICAL POLITY
 is the operational and governance structure of a church or of a Christian denomination. It also
denotes the ministerial structure of a church and the authority relationships between churches.
Polity relates closely to ecclesiology, the study of doctrine and theology relating to church
organization.
 Ecclesiastical polity is defined as both the subject of ecclesiastical government in the abstract
and the particular system of government of a specific Christian organization. The phrase sometimes
is used in civil law.
UNIT
Church
IX
7. CONGREGATIONAL CHURCHES
 are Protestant churches in the Reformed tradition practicing Congregationalist church
governance, in which each congregation independently and autonomously runs its own affairs.
8. PARISH
 is a territorial entity in many Christian denominations, constituting a division within a diocese. A
parish is under the pastoral care and clerical jurisdiction of a parish priest, who might be assisted by
one or more curates, and who operates from a parish church. Historically, a parish often covered the
same geographical area as a manor. Its association with the parish church remains paramount.
UNIT
Church
IX
9. SIMPLE CHURCH
 is an Evangelical Christian movement that reinterprets the nature and practice of church.
10. EARLY CENTER OF CHRISTIANITY
 Early Christianity (generally considered the time period from its origin to the First Council of
Nacaea in 325) spread from the Eastern Mediterranean throughout the Roman Empire and beyond.
Originally, this progression was closely connected to already stablished Jewish centers in the Holy
Land and the Jewish Diaspora. The first followers of Christianity were Jews or proselytes, commonly
referred to as Jewish Christian and God-Fearers.
UNIT
Government
IX
A government is the system by which a state or community is controlled in the
Commonwealth of Nations, the word government is also used more narrowly to
refer to the collective group of people that exercises executive authority in a state.
This usage is analogous to what is called an “administration” an American English.
Furthermore, especially in American English, the concepts of the state and the
government maybe used synonymously to refer to the person or group of people
exercising authority over a politically organized territory. Finally, government is also
sometimes used in English as synonym for governance.
UNIT
Government
IX
8 Most common political systems around the world (Form of Government)
1. Democracy
 Defined as a form of government in which power belongs to the people.
2. Monarchy
 A form of government led by an individual who holds the position for life, having inherited the position, and
who passes it on the relative, usually a son or daughter.
3. Republicanism
 A public is a country whose head of government is an elected or chosen president.
4. Totalitarianism
 The government holds absolute control over all aspects of the lives of its people.
UNIT
Government
IX
8 Most common political systems around the world (Form of Government)
5. Fascism
 Form of government usually headed by a dictator. It involves total government control of political, economic, cultural,
religions, and social activities.
6. Dictatorship
 One person called dictator, has absolute power. This differs from totalitarianism in that it is less controlling and not
marked by a rigid set of beliefs
7. Communism
 An economic system in which there is little or no private ownership- properly is held by the community rather than by
individual.
8. Oligarchy
 Form of government in which only a few wealthy people hold power.

UNIT
Government
IX
Government of any kind currently affects every human activity in many important ways for this reason, political
scientist generally argue that government should not be study by itself, but should be studied along with the
following:
1. Anthropology
2. Economics
3. Environment
4. History
5. Philosophy
6. Science
7. Sociology
UNIT
Government
IX
Importance of government to a society
Government keeps everyone save. A social contract signed between the government and the people
ensures that the government will protect the people as long as the people let the government do what is best for
them, such as making laws.
Without government there would be even more crime in the world that there is now. So many people would
be killed or injured and nobody would get along. With a government, we have to abide by their rules and return
they protect our natural rights.
UNIT
Non-Government Institutions
IX
Non-governmental organizations or commonly referred to as NGOs are usually non-profit and sometimes international
organizations. Independent of governments and international governmental organizations (though often funded by
governments) that are active in humanitarian, educational, health care, public policy, social, human rights, environmental, and
other areas to effect changes according to their objectives. They are thus a subgroup of all organizations founded by citizens,
which include clubs and other associations that provide services, benefits, and premises only to members. Sometimes the
term is used as a synonym of "civil society organization" to refer to any association founded by citizens, but this is not how
the term is normally used in the media or everyday language, as recorded by major dictionaries. The explanation of the term
by NGO.org (the non-governmental organizations associated with the United Nations) is ambivalent. It first says an NGO is
any non-profit, voluntary citizens' group which is organized on a local, national or international level, but then goes on to
restrict the meaning in the sense used by most English speakers and the media: Task-oriented and driven by people with a
common interest, NGOs perform a variety of service and humanitarian functions, bring citizen concerns to Governments,
advocate and monitor policies and encourage political participation through provision of information.
UNIT
IX
NGOs are usually funded by donations, but some avoid formal funding altogether and are run primarily by
volunteers. NGOs are highly diverse groups of organizations engaged in a wide range of activities, and take
different forms in different parts of the world. Some may have charitable status, while others may be registered
for tax exemption based on recognition of social purposes. Others may be fronts for political, religious, or other
interests. Since the end of World War II, NGOs have had an increasing role in international development,
particularly in the fields of humanitarian assistance and poverty alleviation.
There are many different classifications of NGO in use. The most common focus is on "orientation" and "level of
operation". An NGO's orientation refers to the type of activities it takes on. These activities might include human
rights, environmental, improving health, or development work. An NGO's level of operation indicates the scale
at which an organization works, such as local, regional, national, or international.
UNIT
IX
The term "non-governmental organization" was first coined in 1945, when the
United Nations (UN) was created. The UN, itself an intergovernmental organization,
made it possible for certain approved specialized international non-state agencies
— i.e., non-governmental organizations — to be awarded observer status at its
assemblies and some of its meetings. Later the term became used more widely.
Today, according to the UN, any kind of private organization that is independent
from government control can be termed an "NGO", provided it is not-for-profit, non-
prevention, but not simply an opposition political party.

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Language and Society ABEL 110

GROUP REPORT POWERPOINT PRESENTATION

1,2 Characteristics of Language and

Florence Esteban 1.3 Language Components

Sherilyn De Guzman 1.4 Types/ Kinds of Society

• Language is both a system of communication between

• Language is symbolic – Each language is made up of sounds and

• Language has rules of usage- When speaking a language you do not

• Society is abstract- Social relationships can be felt, and imagined

• Interdependence- Man cannot live alone. It is not possible for

• Conflict- On the opposite side of the spectrum from Cooperation,

Sociologist Gerhard Lenski (1924–) defined societies in

• Hunting and gathering societies- societies that rely primarily or

• Agricultural society- also known as an "agarian society" society

Rhovelyn Guttierez 2.3 Pidgin and Creoles

Flordeliza De Vera 2.4 Slang, Argot, Jargons, and Registers

Ma. Christine Santos 2.5 Lingua Franca

Creole is a pidgin language which is accepted as the original language that

Bogus- not real or genuine.

Piaf- a Parisian argot word for bird.

Getting on a soapbox- making a speech in public.

In Lingua Franca (the specific language), Lingua means a language as in

Lingua Francas is a term for language used in business or other forms of

During the AGE OF EXPLORATION, Lingua Franca also played an

When the Spaniards claimed the Philippines as a

Micheal John Cruz 4.5 What is being lost?

Christine Grace Surnit 4.6 Reviving Endangered Languages

Extinct Languages in the Philippines

The language diversity is an evolving one that requires

Nicole Justine Alejo 6.1 Restricted and Elaborated Speech Variants

Mary Milagros Dalisay 6.2 Two kinds of social formation

Cinch Charles Corres 6.3 Role systems and codes

Jelly Mae Cristobal 6.4 Codes and social class

• “Restricted and elaborated codes” refers to the different

Hannah Mae Lopez 7.1 Doing Things with Words

Kaycee T. Gomez 7.2 Adjacency Pair

Mae Anne A. Escaño 7.3 Social Relations and Management Discourse

Alejandra De Guzman Delos Santos 7.4 Types of Social Relations

Characteristic of Adjacency Pair

B: Defendant`s last payment was in April 2005.

Categorizing social interactions enables observational and other

8.3 Gender Differences

8.5 Gender Noun

8.7 Common Gender Biased Terms and Bias-free Substitute

Addressing the Professional

is language whose “ use creates, constitutes, promotes or exploits

Generic Pronoun is used to describe

Example: They say smoking is bad for you.

Example: Someone forgot their bag.

a name that identifies particular person, place or thing.

1.) They name specific one-of-a-kind items

Common Noun: I want to be a writer.

Common Noun: I’d like to adopt a cat.

It’s easy to use proper nouns, once you

• If language is gender biased, it favours a certain gender over another.

What about in writing?

• Use the plural.

• Eliminate the pronoun or reword to avoid using a pronoun.

• 1. With this, be careful not to confuse your reader; don't bounce

If the gender of the person being discussed is unknown or could be either