Groups

Rupesh Tiwari

1
 Groups
• 1. Introduction
• 2.Normal subgroups, quotien groups.
• 3. Homomorphism.

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 1.Introduction
• 1.1. Binary Operations
• 1.2.Definition of Groups
• 1.3.Examples of Groups
• 1.4.Subgroups

3
 1.Introduction
• 1.1. Binary Operations
• 1.2.Definition of Groups
• 1.3.Examples of Groups
• 1.4.Subgroups

4
 1.Introduction
1.1.Binary Operations
A binary operation on a set is a rule for combining two
elements of the set. More precisely, if S iz a nonemty set, a
binary operation on S iz a mapping f : S  S  S. Thus f
associates with each ordered pair (x,y) of element of S an
element f(x,y) of S. It is better notation to write x  y for f(x,y),
refering to  as the binary operation.

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 1.Introduction
1.2.Definition of Groups
A group (G, ・ ) is a set G together with a binary operation ・
satisfying the following axioms.
(i) The operation ・ is associative; that is,
(a ・ b) ・ c = a ・ (b ・ c) for all a, b, c ∈ G.
(ii) There is an identity element e ∈ G such that
e ・ a = a ・ e = a for all a ∈ G.
(iii) Each element a ∈ G has an inverse element a−1 ∈ G such that
a-1 ・ a = a ・ a−1 = e.

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 1.Introduction
If the operation is commutative, that is,
if a ・ b = b ・ a for all a, b ∈ G,
the group is called commutative or abelian, in honor of the
mathematician Niels Abel.

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 1.Introduction
1.3.Examples of Groups
• Example 1.3.1. Let G be the set of complex numbers {1,−1, i,
−i} and let ・ be the standard multiplication of complex
numbers. Then (G, ・ ) is an abelian group. The product of
any two of these elements is an element of G; thus G is closed
under the operation. Multiplication is associative and
commutative in G because multiplication of complex numbers
is always associative and commutative. The identity element is
1, and the inverse of each element a is the element 1/a. Hence
1−1 = 1, (−1)−1 = −1, i−1 = −i, and (−i)−1 = i.

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 1.Introduction
• Example 1.3.2. The set of all rational numbers, , forms an
abelian group (,+) under addition.The identity is 0, and the
inverse of each element is its negative. Similarly,
(,+), (,+), and (,+) are all abelian groups under addition.
• Example1. 3.3. If ∗, ∗, and ∗ denote the set of nonzero
rational, real, and complex numbers, respectively, (∗, ・ ),
(∗, ・ ), and (∗, ・ ) are all abelian groups under
multiplication.

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 1.Introduction
• Example 1.3.4. A translation of the plane 2 in the direction of
the vector (a, b) is a function f :2 → 2 defined by f (x, y) = (x
+ a, y + b). The composition of this translation with a
translation g in the direction of (c, d) is the function
f g:2 → 2, where
f g(x, y) = f (g(x, y))= f (x + c, y + d)= (x + c + a, y + d + b).
This is a translation in the direction of (c + a, d + b). It can
easily be verified that the set of all translations in 2 forms an
abelian group, under composition. The identity is the identity
transformation 12 :2 → 2, and the inverse of the translation in
the direction (a, b) is the translation in the opposite direction
(−a,−b).
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 1.Introduction
• Example1.3.5. If S(X) is the set of bijections from any set X
to itself, then (S(X), ) is a group under composition. This
group is called the symmetric group or permutation group of
X.

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 1.Introduction
• Proposition 1.3.1. If a, b, and c are elements of a group G,
then
(i) (a−1)−1 = a.
(ii) (ab)−1 = b−1a−1.
(iii) ab = ac or ba = ca implies that b = c. (cancellation law)

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 1.Introduction
• 1.4.Subgroups
It often happens that some subset of a group will
also form a group under the same operation.Such
a group is called a subgroup. If (G, ・ ) is a
group and H is a nonempty subset of G, then
(H, ・ ) is called a subgroup of (G, ・ ) if the
following conditions hold:
(i) a ・ b ∈ H for all a, b ∈ H. (closure)
(ii) a−1 ∈ H for all a ∈ H. (existence of inverses)
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 1.Introduction
• Conditions (i) and (ii) are equivalent to the single condition:
(iii) a ・ b−1 ∈ H for all a, b ∈ H.

Proposition 1.4.2. If H is a nonempty finite subset of a group G

and ab ∈ H for all a, b ∈ H, then H is a subgroup of G.

Example 1.4.1 In the group ({1,−1, i,−i}, ・ ), the subset {1,−1}

forms a subgroup because this subset is closed under
multiplication

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 1.Introduction
• Example 1.4.2 .The group  is a subgroup of , is a subgroup
of , and  is a subgroup of . (Remember that addition is the
operation in all these groups.)
• However, the set  = {0, 1, 2, . . .} of nonnegative integers is a
subset of  but not a subgroup, because the inverse of 1,
namely, −1, is not in This example shows that Proposition
1.4.2 is false if we drop the condition that H be finite.
• The relation of being a subgroup is transitive. In fact, for any
group G, the inclusion relation between the subgroups of G is
a partial order relation.

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 1.Introduction

• Definition. Let G be a group and let a  G. If ak = 1 for some

k  1, then the smallest such exponent k  1 is called the order
of a; if no such power exists, then one says that a has infinite
order.

• Proposition 1.4.3 . Let G be a group and assume that a G

has finite order k. If an = 1, then k | n. In fact, {n  : an = 1} is
the set of all the multiples of k.

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 1.Introduction
• Definition. If G is a group and a  G, write
<a > = {an : n } = {all powers of a } .
It is easy to see that <a > is a subgroup of G .
< a > is called the cyclic subgroup of G generated by a. A
group G is called cyclic if there is some a  G with G = < a >;
in this case a is called a generator of G.
• Proposition 1.4.4. If G= <a > is a cyclic group of order n,
then ak is a generator of G if and only if gcd(k; n)= 1.
• Corollary 1.4.5. The number of generators of a cyclic group of
order n is (n).

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 1.Introduction
• Proposition 1.4.6. Let G be a finite group and let a  G. Then
the order of a is the number of elements in <a >.

• Definition. If G is a finite group, then the number of elements

in G, denoted by G, is called the order of G.

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 2.Normal subgroups,quotient
groups
• 2.1.Cosets
• 2.2.Theorem of Lagrange
• 2.3.Normal Subgrops
• 2.4.Quotient Groups

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 2.Normal subgroups,quotient
groups
• 2.1.Cosets
• Let (G, ·) be a group with subgroup H. For a, b ∈ G, we say
that a is congruent to b modulo H, and write a ≡ b mod H if
and only if ab−1 ∈ H.
• Proposition 2.1. 1.The relation a ≡ b mod H is an equivalence
relation on G. The equivalence class containing a can be
written in the form Ha = {ha|h ∈ H}, and it is called a right
coset of H in G. The element a is called a representative of
the coset Ha.

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 2.Normal subgroups,quotient
groups
• Example 2.1.1. Find the right cosets of A3 in S3.
Solution. One coset is the subgroup itself A3 = {(1), (123),
(132)}. Take any element not in the subgroup, say (12). Then
another coset is A3(12) = {(12), (123) (12), (132) (12)} =
{(12), (13), (23)}.Since the right cosets form a partition of S3
and the two cosets above contain all the elements of S3, it
follows that these are the only two cosets.
In fact, A3 = A3(123) = A3(132) and A3(12) = A3(13) = A3(23).

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 2.Normal subgroups,quotient
groups
• Example 2.1.2. Find the right cosets of H = {e, g4, g8} in C12
= {e, g, g2, . . . , g11}.
• Solution. H itself is one coset. Another is Hg = {g, g5, g9}.
These two cosets have not exhausted all the elements of C12,
so pick an element, say g2, which is not in H or Hg. A third
coset is Hg2 = {g2, g6, g10} and a fourth is Hg3 ={g3, g7, g11}.
Since C12 = H ∪ Hg ∪ Hg2 ∪ Hg3, these are all the cosets

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 2.Normal subgroups,quotient
groups
• 2.2.Theorem of Lagrange
• As the examples above suggest, every coset contains the same
number of elements. We use this result to prove the famous
theorem of Joseph Lagrange (1736–1813).
• Lemma 2.2.1. There is a bijection between any two right cosets
of H in G.
Proof. Let Ha be a right coset of H in G. We produce a bijection
between Ha and H, from which it follows that there is a bijection
between any two right cosets.
Define ψ:H → Ha by ψ(h) = ha. Then ψ is clearly surjective.
Now suppose that ψ(h1) = ψ(h2), so that h1a = h2a. Multiplying
each side by a−1 on the right, we obtain h1 = h2. Hence ψ is a
bijection.
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 2.Normal subgroups,quotient
groups
• Theorem 2.2.2. Lagrange’s Theorem. If G is a finite group
and H is a subgroup of G, then |H| divides |G|.
Proof. The right cosets of H in G form a partition of G, so G can
be written as a disjoint union
G = Ha1 ∪ Ha2 ∪ ·· ·∪ Hak for a finite set of elements a1, a2, . . . ,
ak ∈ G.
By Lemma 2.2.1, the number of elements in each coset is |H|.
Hence, counting all the elements in the disjoint union above,
we see that |G| = k|H|. Therefore, |H| divides |G|.

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 2.Normal subgroups,quotient
groups
• If H is a subgroup of G, the number of distinct right cosets of
H in G is called the index of H in G and is written |G : H|. The
following is a direct consequence of the proof of Lagrange’s
theorem.
• Corollary 2.2.3. If G is a finite group with subgroup H, then
|G : H| = |G|/|H|.
• Corollary 2.2.4. If a is an element of a finite group G, then the
order of a divides the order of G.

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 2.Normal subgroups,quotient
groups
• 2.3.Normal Subgrops
• Let G be a group with subgroup H. The right cosets of H in G
are equivalence classes under the relation a ≡ b mod H,
defined by ab−1 ∈ H. We can also define the relation L on G so
that aLb if and only if b−1a ∈ H. This relation, L, is an
equivalence relation, and the equivalence class containing a is
the left coset aH = {ah|h ∈ H}. As the following example
shows, the left coset of an element does not necessarily equal
the right coset.

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 2.Normal subgroups,quotient
groups
• Example 2.3.1. Find the left and right cosets of H = A3 and K = {(1),
(12)} in S3.
• Solution. We calculated the right cosets of H = A3 in Example 2.1.1.
Right Cosets
H = {(1), (123), (132)}; H(12) = {(12), (13), (23)}
Left Cosets
H = {(1), (123), (132}; (12)H = {(12), (23), (13)}
In this case, the left and right cosets of H are the same.
• However, the left and right cosets of K are not all the same.
Right Cosets
K = {(1), (12)} ; K(13) = {(13), (132)} ; K(23) = {(23), (123)}
Left Cosets
K = {(1), (12)};(23)K = {(23), (132)}; (13)K = {(13), (123)}
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 2.Normal subgroups,quotient
groups
Definition: A subgroup H of a group G is called a normal
subgroup of G if g−1hg ∈ H for all g ∈ G and h ∈ H.
Proposition 2.3.1. Hg = gH, for all g ∈ G, if and only if H is a
normal subgroup of G.
Proof. Suppose that Hg = gH. Then, for any element h ∈ H, hg ∈
Hg = gH. Hence hg = gh1 for some h1 ∈ H and g−1hg = g−1gh1
= h1 ∈ H. Therefore,H is a normal subgroup.
Conversely, if H is normal, let hg ∈ Hg and g−1hg = h1 ∈ H.
Then hg = gh1 ∈ gH and Hg ⊆ gH. Also, ghg−1 = (g−1)−1hg−1 =
h2 ∈ H, since H is normal, so gh = h2g ∈ Hg. Hence, gH ⊆ Hg,
and so Hg = gH.

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 2.Normal subgroups,quotient
groups
• If N is a normal subgroup of a group G, the left cosets of N in
G are the same as the right cosets of N in G, so there will be
no ambiguity in just talking about the cosets of N in G.

• Theorem 2.3.2. If N is a normal subgroup of (G, ·), the set of

cosets G/N = {Ng|g ∈ G} forms a group (G/N, ·), where the
operation is defined by (Ng1) · (Ng2) = N(g1 · g2). This group is
called the quotient group or factor group of G by N.

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 2.Normal subgroups,quotient
groups
• Proof. The operation of multiplying two cosets, Ng1 and Ng2, is
defined in terms of particular elements, g1 and g2, of the cosets. For
this operation to make sense, we have to verify that, if we choose
different elements, h1 and h2, in the same cosets, the product coset
N(h1 · h2) is the same as N(g1 · g2). In other words, we have to
show that multiplication of cosets is well defined. Since h1 is in the
same coset as g1, we have h1 ≡ g1 mod N. Similarly, h2 ≡ g2 mod N.
We show that Nh1h2 = Ng1g2. We have h1g 1−1 = n1 ∈ N and h2g 2−1
= n2 ∈ N, so h1h2(g1g2)−1 = h1h2g 2−1g 1−1 = n1g1n2g2g2 −1 g 1−1 =
n1g1n2g 1−1. Now N is a normal subgroup, so g1n2g 1−1 ∈ N and
n1g1n2g 1−1 ∈ N. Hence h1h2 ≡ g1g2 mod N and Nh1h2 = Ng1g2.
Therefore, the operation is well defined.

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 2.Normal subgroups,quotient
groups
• The operation is associative because (Ng1 · Ng2) · Ng3 =
N(g1g2) · Ng3 = N(g1g2)g3 and also Ng1 · (Ng2 · Ng3) = Ng1 ·
N(g2g3) = Ng1(g2g3) = N(g1g2)g3.
• Since Ng · Ne = Nge = Ng and Ne · Ng = Ng, the identity is
Ne = N.
• The inverse of Ng is Ng−1 because Ng · Ng−1 = N(g · g−1) = Ne
= N and also Ng−1 · Ng = N.
• Hence (G/N, ·) is a group.

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 2.Normal subgroups,quotient
groups
• Example 2.3.1. (n, +) is the quotient group of (,+) by the
subgroup n = {nz|z ∈ }.
• Solution. Since (,+) is abelian, every subgroup is normal. The
set n can be verified to be a subgroup, and the relationship a ≡
b mod n is equivalent to a − b ∈ n and to n|a − b. Hence a ≡
b mod n is the same relation as a ≡ b mod n. Therefore, n is
the quotient group /n, where the operation on congruence
classes is defined by [a] + [b] = [a + b].
(n,+) is a cyclic group with 1 as a generator .When there is no
confusion, we write the elements of n as 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . ,
n − 1 instead of [0], [1], [2], [3], . . . , [n − 1].

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 3.Homorphisms.
• 3.1.Definition of Homomorphisms
• 3.2.Examples of Homomorphisms
• 3.3.Theorem on Homomorphisms

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 3.Homorphisms
• 3.1.Definition of Homomorphisms
• If (G, ・ ) and (H,  ) are two groups, the function f :G → H
is called a group homomorphism if
f (a ・ b) = f (a)  f (b) for all a, b ∈ G.
• We often use the notation f : (G, ・ ) → (H, ) for such a
homorphism. Many authors use morphism instead of
homomorphism.
• A group isomorphism is a bijective group homomorphism. If
there is an isomorphism between the groups (G, ・ ) and
(H, ), we say that (G, ・ ) and (H, ) are isomorphic and write
(G, ・ )  (H,  ).

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 3.Homorphisms
• 3.2.Examples of Homomorphisms
- The function f :  → n , defined by f (x) = [x] iz the group
homomorphism.
- Let be  the group of all real numbers with operation addition,
and let + be the group of all positive real numbers with
operation multiplication. The function f :  → + , defined by f
(x) = ex , is a homomorphism, for if x, y  , then
f(x + y) = ex+y = ex ey = f (x) f (y). Now f is an isomorphism,
for its inverse function g :+ →  is lnx. There-fore, the
additive group  is isomorphic to the multiplicative group
+ . Note that the inverse function g is also an isomorphism:
g(x y) = ln(x y) = lnx + lny = g(x) + g(y).
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 3.Homorphisms
• 3.3.Theorem on Homomorphisms
• Proposition 3.3.1. Let f :G → H be a group morphism, and let
eG and eH be the identities of G and H, respectively. Then
(i) f (eG) = eH .
(ii) f (a−1) = f (a)−1 for all a ∈ G.
• Proof. (i) Since f is a morphism, f (eG)f (eG) = f (eG eG) = f (eG)
= f (eG)eH . Hence (i) follows by cancellation in H
(ii) f (a) f (a−1) = f (a a−1) = f (eG) = eH by (i). Hence f (a−1) is the
unique inverse of f (a); that is f (a−1) = f (a)−1

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 3.Homorphisms
• If f :G → H is a group morphism, the kernel of f , denoted by
Kerf, is defined to be the set of elements of G that are mapped
by f to the identity of H. That is, Kerf ={g ∈ G|f (g) = eH }
• Proposition 3.3.2. Let f :G → H be a group morphism. Then:
(i) Kerf is a normal subgroup of G.
(ii) f is injective if and only if Kerf = {eG}.
• Proposition 3.3.3. For any group morphism f :G → H, the
image of f , Imf ={f (g)|g ∈ G}, is a subgroup of H (although
not necessarily normal).

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 3.Homorphisms
• Theorem 3.3.4. Morphism Theorem for Groups. Let K be
the kernel of the group morphism f :G → H. Then G/K is
isomorphic to the image of f, and the isomorphism
ψ: G/K → Imf is defined by ψ(Kg) = f (g).
• This result is also known as the first isomorphism theorem.
• Proof. The function ψ is defined on a coset by using one
particular element in the coset, so we have to check that ψ is
well defined; that is, it does not matter which element we use.
If Kg , = Kg, then g’ ≡ g mod K so g ,g−1 = k ∈ K = Kerf .
Hence g , = kg and so
f (g ,) = f (kg) = f (k)f(g) = eHf (g) = f (g).
Thus ψ is well defined on cosets.
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 3.Homorphisms
• The function ψ is a morphism because
ψ(Kg1Kg2) = ψ(Kg1g2) = f (g1g2) = f (g1)f (g2) = ψ(Kg1)ψ(Kg2).
• If ψ(Kg) = eH, then f (g) = eH and g ∈ K. Hence the only
element in the kernel of ψ is the identity coset K, and ψ is
injective. Finally, Imψ = Imf ,by the definition of ψ.
Therefore, ψ is the required isomorphism between G/K and
Imf

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 3.Homorphisms
• Example 3.3.1. Show that the quotient group / is
isomorphic to the circle group W = {eiθ ∈ | θ ∈ }.
Solution. The set W consists of points on the circle of complex
numbers of unit modulus, and forms a group under
multiplication. Define the function
f :R → W by f (x) = e2πix. This is a morphism from (,+) to
(W, ·) because
f (x + y) = e2πi(x+y) = e2πix · e2πiy = f (x) · f (y).
The morphism f is clearly surjective, and its kernel is
{x ∈ |e2πix = 1} = .
Therefore, the morphism theorem implies that /W.
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