Marketing Management
Marketing Management
Marketing Management
Sangeeta Singh
INDEX
1) What Is Marketing?
2) The Marketing Environment
3) Marketing Management
4) Marketing as Decision Making
5) Analyzing Consumer Behaviour
6) Organizational Buying Behaviour
7) Market Segmentation
8) Targeted Marketing
9) The Marketing Mix
10) The Product
11) New Product Development
12) Marketing Channels
13) Physical Distribution
14) The Promotion Effort
15) Price Determination
16) Price Administration
Chapter -
1
WHAT IS MARKETING?
WHAT’S MARKETING IS ALL ABOUT
A HUMAN ACTIVITY DIRECTED AT SATISFYING
NEEDS AND WANTS THROUGH EXCHANGE
PROCESSES
PHILIP KOTLER
JOHN.A. HOWARD
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 1973
What is Marketing?
Marketing is the process of planning
and executing the conception, pricing,
promotion, and distribution of ideas,
goods, and services to create exchanges
that satisfy individual and organizational
objectives.
Customer
Customer Orientation
Orientation •Satisfies Customers’
Needs and Wants
•Total Quality
Organization’s
Organization’s Strengths
Strengths
and
and Weaknesses
Weaknesses
Opportunities
Opportunities and
and Threats
Threats to
to the
the
Organization
Organization in
in the
the Marketplace
Marketplace
Organization’s
Organization’s Overall
Overall Objectives
Objectives
Needs, Wants and
Benefits
Difference Between a
Consumer’s Actual State
Needs
Needs and Some Ideal or Desired
State. I’m Hungry!
Top
Management
Middle Management
Front-line people
Customers
Customer-Oriented Organization
Chart
Customers
Front-line people
Middle management
s
C
er
us
om
t
Top
om
t
us
manage-
er
C
s
ment
Evolving Views of Marketing’s
Role
Finance
Production
Production Finance
Human
resources
Marketing Human
resources Marketing
Production on
cti
Fi
du
na
ro
nc
P
e
Marketing Customer
re
Hu ur
ce M
so
ur an
ar
s
m ces
ce
n ke
so m
an
Fi tin
re Hu
g
Production
Marketing
Customer
re
Hu ur
so
e
m ces
n c
an
n a
Fi
5-C
S-T-P 4 P’s Marketing
Analysis
Marketing Plan
Customer
Segmentation Product
Competitor
Targeting Pricing
Company
Positioning Promotion
Context
Place
Collaborat
ors
Psychological
Functional Economic
MARKETING’S
CONTRIBUTION WITHIN
THE FIRM
Corporate / Business Unit
Level
The Policy Question: How to develop a
Customer Focus?
Marketing’s Answer: Bring the Voice of
the customer in the organization
Tools: Mkt Research, Customer Visits,
Market Orientation Audits
MARKETING’S
CONTRIBUTION WITHIN
THE FIRM
Product Level
The Policy Question: How to best adapt to
the market?
Marketing’s Answer: Develop a value
proposition and competitive positioning
based on customer needs
Tools: Customer and Competitor analysis
MARKETING’S
CONTRIBUTION WITHIN
THE FIRM
Product Level
The Policy Question: How to best adapt to
the market?
Marketing’s Answer: Develop a value
proposition and competitive positioning
based on customer needs
Tools: Customer and Competitor analysis
Plea From an Anonymous
Customer
Don’t Sell me Clothes, Sell me a sharp appearance, style
and attractiveness.
Don’t Sell me a House, Sell me comfort, contentment, a
good investment and a pride of ownership.
Don’t Sell me Toys, Sell my children happy moments.
Don’t Sell me Insurance, Sell me peace of mind, and a
great future for my family and me.
Don’t Sell me Books, Sell me pleasant hours and the
profits of knowledge.
Don’t Sell me Computers, Sell me the pleasure and profits
of the miracles of modern technology.
The Moral is…..
PRODUCTS AND
SERVICES
VALUE, UTILITY
NEEDS, WANTS SATISFACTION
AND DEMANDS
MARKETS QUALITY
EXCHANGE
RELATIONSHIPS
TRANSACTIONS
FUNDAMENTAL TERMINOLOGIES
NEEDS : FELT DEPREIVATION
T ING S CUSTOMER
X IS CT NEEDS
FOCUS E
OD
U
PR
ING/ G
E LL OTIN INTEGRATED
S
MEANS R OM MARKETING
P
Micro Environment
Macro Environment
Micro Environment
Five Components
Internal Environment
Marketing Intermediaries
Group of Customer
Competitors
Group of publics
Macro Environment
Demographic Environment
Economic Environment
Natural Environment
Technological Environment
Political Environment
Cultural Environment
A COMPANY’S COMPLETE MARKETING ENVIRONMENT
ECONOMIC
CONDITIONS
DEMOGRAPHY
COMPETITION
SUPPLIERS FINANCIAL
RESOURCES
PRO- HUMAN
DUCTION
RESOURCE INTER MARKET
FACILITIES
MEDIARIES
INTER CO’S
LOCATION IMAGE
NEDIARIES
R&D
SOCIAL &
CULTURAL
FORCES
SALES
SALES
SALES
TIME TIME
TIME
•BECAUSE OF:
LOW SALES VOLUME
RAPID SLOW
HIGH
SKIMMING SKIMMING
PRICE
RAPID SLOW
LOW PENETRATION PENETRATION
STRATEGY
LIMITED DISTRIBUTION
PHASE – II GROWTH
IF PRODUCT SATISFIED MARKET ….. IT WILL ENTER
GROWTH PHASE
•GROWTH MATURITY
DECAYING MATURITY
PROFIT – EROSION
MILKMAID
COMPLAN
CHOCOLATE – CADBURY’S
(B) THE PRODUCT MODIFICATION
STYLE IMPROVEMENT
IF DECISIONS IS TO STAY:
THREE OPTIONS:
IF DECISION IS TO DROP:
-WHEN PRODUCT’S RATING FAIL TO MEET
COMPETITION ON CERTAIN KEY CRITERIA
DROPPING IT
COMPLETELY
OPTION
SELLING OR TRANSFERING IT TO
OTHER COMPANY
TYPES OF MARKET STRUCTURE
Pure Competition
◦ Many Small Buyers , Small Buyers, Homogeneous Product,
◦ Easy Entry & Exit, Perfect information
Monopolistic Competition
◦ Many Sellers & buyers and each is offering something different.
◦ No close subsitute
Oligopoly
◦ Few large independent firms account for bulk of the industry sales
◦ Each oligopolist has vast industry customers.
◦ Action of one firm tend to directly affect the others in the industry.
◦ Each firm tries to anticipate what the others will do.
Pure Monopoly
◦ It’s the opposite of pure competition
Chapter - 3
MARKETING
MANAGEMENT
THE BCG GROWTH-SHARE MATRIX
Stars: High growth high share businesses or
productsrequire heavy investmenteventually they
will become cashcows.
Cash Cows: high share pproducts less investment
to hold their market shareand provides the
company with the money to support other SBUs
(Strategic Business Unit)
Question Marks: High Growth, they require a lot of
resources to hold their market sharemanagement
has to decide which Q mark can become stars &
which should be phased out.
Dogs: Low growth low share SBUs They may
generate enough money to sustain themselves,
but cannot contribute to the corporate kitty.
Chapter - 4
MARKETING AS
DECISION MAKING AND
INFORMATION
GATHERING
MARKETER’S PROBLEMS
Marketers need to find solution of two
problems
•Determining Goals
no
Make Decisions
Gather Additional
Information
MIS
External Data Process, Analyses
State of the Economy Data
Political Environment
Competitive Situation
Customer Data
Data Processing
Data Bank
Information Bank
Internal Data
Sales
Costs
Gather, Store, Evaluate, Disseminate
Marketing Objectives
Retrieve Data Information
Marketing Research
Marketing Mix
MARKET RESEARCH
COLLECT
SECONDARY DATA
DESIGN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
DESIGN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
•METHOD •METHOD
•SCREENER QUESTIONNAIRE •SAMPLE DESIGN
EXPLORATORY •DATA COLLECTION
•DISCUSSION GUIDE STUDY
INSTRUMENT
ANALYZE DATA
ANALYZE DATA (OBJECTIVE)
(SUBJECTIVE)
PREPARE
PREPARE REPORT
REPORT
THE MARKETING RESEARCH
PROCESS
1) Identify & Define the Problem/Opportunity.
2) Conduct a Preliminary Exploration.
3) Determine the Research Process.
4) Determine Data Needs
5) Determine Data Sources.
6) Create the Research Design
A) Functional Categories
i) Exploratory Research
ii) Descriptive Research
iii) Casal Research
iv) Predictive Research.
B) Methodological Categories
i) Historical Research
ii) Survey Research
iii) Experimental Research
iv) Motivational Research
7) Collect the Data
A) Primary Data
B) Secondary Data
8) Analyse the Data and convert to Information
9) Communicate the information.
Defining the problem and Research Objectives
ANALYZING CONSUMER
BEHAVIOUR
Consumer Behaviour
•The Behavior that consumer display in searching for purchasing using
evaluating & disposing of products and services that they expect will
satisfy their needs.
O
U
TYPE
BUYER T
OF
DECISION PROCESS C
BUYING
O
SITUATION
M
E
SOME CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR ROLES
Role Description
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Initiator The person who determines that some need
or want is not being met.
SUBCULTURAL INFLUENCES
CULTURAL INFLUENCES
DETERMINANTS SO
INDIVIDUAL CI
AL
CL
M
INFORMATION PROCESSING` AS
OT S
LE IN
IV
AR FL
AT
PROBLEM NI UE
IO
RECOGNITION DE NG NC
OT N
CIS &
HE & ES
IO ME
R IN FE
INFORMATION N M
IN VO ED PR OR
FL LV BA SERACH &
EM OC Y
UE CK EVALUATION ES
NC EN
S
ES T
PURCHASING SO
CI
PROCESS AL
GR
OU
POST PURCHASE P
BEHAVIOUR IN
FL
PERSONALITY & SELF-CONCEPT UE
ATTITUDES NC
ES`
PERSONAL INFLUENCES
FAMILY INFLUENCES
FACTORS INFLUENCING CONSUMER
BEHAVIOUR
CULTURAL
Culture SOCIAL
Sub-Culture Reference PERSONAL
Social Class Groups Age & Life Cycle PSYCHOLOGICAL
Family Stage Motivation
Roles Occupation Perception
Status Economics Learning
Circumstances Beliefs
Life Style Attitudes
Personality & Self
BUYER
SOCIAL CLASSES
Upper-Upper
Lower-Uppers
Upper-Middles
Middle Class
Working Class
Upper Lowers
Lowers Lowers
FAMILY LIFE CYCLE
FOUR TYPES OF BUYER BEHAVIOUR
HENRY ASSEL 2X2 MATRIX
HIGH INVOLVEMENT LOW INVOLVEMENT
SIGNIFICANT
COMPLEX IMPULSE
DIFFERENCES
DECISION MAKING PURCHASING
BETWEEN
BRANDS
MEDICAL SERVICES CEREALS
AUTO,FINANCIAL SNACKS
PLANNING SERVICES
POST-PURCHASE PURCHASE
BEHAVIOUR DECISION
Chapter - 6
ORGANIZATIONAL
BUYING BEHAVIOUR
INDUSTRIAL MARKETING
“The decision-making process by which formal organizations establish the
need for purchased products and services and identify, evaluate and choose
among alternative brands & suppliers.”
Key Linkages
External Environment Internal Organization
External
Environment Organizatioanl
Interpersonal Individual
* Economic * Objectives * Age
* Policies * Authority * Income
Organizational
* Infrastructural Buyer
* Procedures * Status * Education
* Social
* Organizational * Empathy * Job Position
* Political
structure * Persuasiveness * Risk Attitude
* Competition
* Regulatory * System
INDUSTRIAL MARKETING
THE INDUSTRIAL CUSTOMERS BUYER MOTIVES
Assortment Strategies
Exclusive Assortments
Deep Assortment
Broad Assortment
Scrambled Assortment
Chapter - 7
MARKET
SEGMENTATION
MARKETERS-MARKET
To the marketer, the term market means:-
4. People who can become customers because they have been authorized
to buy.
STRATEGIES FOR IDENTIFYING
TARGET MARKETS
A E
Market
B F
Concentration Strategy
Organization’s Single C G Segmentati
Marketing Mix on
D H
A E Market
B F Segmentati
Multi Segment Strategy Organization’s Several C G on
Marketing Mixes D H
THE CONCENTRATION STRATEGY
Advantages
1. Can thoroughly research the segment’s wants and run a much lower risk
of not being able to satisfy its target market.
Disadvantages
1. The organizational cannot spread its risk. Thus, a decline in the selected
segment’s buying power, or a change in taste or the entry of rivals can
have a negative impact on profitability.
Disadvantages
POTEN Nation/ Region Age, Sex, Buying Social Class Amount of Usage
TIAL
CONS State/ Region Power, Expenditure Personality Types of usage
UMER City/ Nbhrhd Patterns, Occuptn, Life Style Brand Loyalty
SEGM Climate/Terain Eductn, Race, or Benefits Soughts
ENTS Nationality, Family
Population
Life Cycle
Density
Mkt Density
Chapter - 8
TARGETED MARKETING
DEVELOPING MARKETING
STRATEGY
1. Define the relevant market
2. Analyze characteristics and wants of potential
customers.
3. Identify bases for segmenting the market
4. Define and describe market segments.
5. Analyze competitor’s positions
6. Evaluate market segments
7. Select the market segment (s)
8. Finalize the marketing mix (es)
1) Segmentation consists of marketers
identifying & profiling distinct groupsof
buyers who require separate market
offerings
2) Targeting consists of selecting one or
more of these segments.
3) Positioning consists of establishing&
communicating the products key
distinctive benefits in the market
123
SALES FORECASTING METHODS
1) Simple Trend Analysis
2) Correlation Methods
3) Executive Judgment
6) Market Tests
7) Substitute Method
The Four Ps: The Tools
Marketing
Mix
Place
Product
Conven-
Customer
Solution Price Promotion ience
Customer Communication
Cost
The Other 4Cs: The
Participants
The
Participants
Competitors
Company
Consumer Channel
Marketing’s Tools: The Marketing
Mix
Product
Product Price
Price
Good,
Good,Service,
Service,Idea,
Idea,Place,
Place,Person
Person Assignment
Assignment of
ofValue
Value
Tools
Tools that
that Are
Are Used
Used Together
Together toto Create
Create aa Desired
Desired
Response
Response Among
Among aa Set
Set of
of Defined
Defined Customers
Customers
Place
Place Promotion
Promotion
Availability
Availabilityof
of Product
Product Activities
Activitiesto
toInform
InformConsumers
Consumers
Chapter - 9
4Ps 4Cs
Product Customer needs & wants
Place Convenience
Promotion Communication
MARKETING MIX
Quality
Features
Options Channels
Style Coverage
Brand Name Locations
Packaging PRODUCT PLACE Inventory
Sizes Transport
Services
TARGET
Warranties MARKET
Returns
PRICE PROMOTION
List Price Advertising
Discounts Personal Selling
Allowances Sale promotion
Payment Period Public Relations
Credit terms
MARKETING MIX STRATEGY
Promotion Mix
Sales
Promotion
Products
Company Services Sales force Channels Customers
Prices
Public
relations
Direct mail
and
telemarketing
Environmental Variables Of Marketing
Competition
Consumer
Government of the land
Forces of nature
MM can control the marktg mix but not these.
He can not dictate what the competitor should
or should not do.
Environmental Variable is also known as non
controllable variables & Marktg Mix is
controllable variables
Marketing can basically be looked upon as
interaction between the MarktgMix & EV.
MMix elements can be combined in an
infinite number of ways.
MMix in effect signifies the manner in
which the mrktg effort or mrktg budgets
distributed.
MMix expressed in Rs terms becomes the
marketing budget.
Chapter - 9
PRODUCT
THREE LEVELS OF PRODUCT
Installation Augmented
Product
Packaging
Tangible
Product
Core
Delivery benefit
After
Brand Features
and name or Sale Core
credit service service Product
Quality Styling
Warranty
PRODUCTS CLASSIFICATION
SYSTEMS
Consumer Products
◦ “ Used by ultimate consumers or households and can be used
without any commercial processing”
Industrial Products
◦ “Sold Primarily for use in producing other goods or rendering
services”
Maggie
Bas 2 mints, Fast to cook & good to eat.
Health bhi taste bhi no MSG group
Maggie is Nestle Flagship brand& globally
also
Maggie came to India 25 years ago1983 as
2mts noodles In the80s market was
beginning to change with the noodles
category& consumer fancy was Chinese
Noodles.Maggie understood what was
happening with the consumer.
Key need for a product that provides good
quality & convenience.This allowed mother
to add her own inputs like vegetables.
Tagline fast to cook & good to eat
was also to educate the consumer
about the advantages of using it.
The jingle for the Maggie was was
pretty catchy & went down well with
Children
In some areas they were ahead of their times
like the launch of sweet noodles.
Not that everything always workbut what
pulled them through is the fact that they
have been able to be ahead of their times.
Nestle gauged the needs & requirements of
the consumer in depth.
Evolve the instant noodles categorywhile
retaining the companys DNA focus of
wellness & nutrition.
Improving further the goodness Quotient
in the products
Company moved away from not so healthy
maida to Atta & Rice noodles.
Also enriched traditional range with Protien
& Calcium
Push was mainly on Taste bhi health bhi
After noodles it launched
Ketchup& maggie hot N sweets
Nestle world widespends a lot of money on
research & development in terms of taste
health & convenience.
CONSUMER PRODUCT
CLASSIFICATIONS
Consumer
Products
Homogeneou Heterogeneou
Staples Impulse Emergency Regularly New
s s
SERVICES
Characteristics of Services
7) Quality control.
Product Mix & Product Line
Width - number of
different product
lines
Consistency
Depth - number of
versions of each
product
Chapter - 10
NEW PRODUCT
DEVELOPMENT
AND
LIFE CYCLE STRATEGIES
STAGES IN NEW PRODUCT
DEVELOPMENT
SIX CATEGORIES OF NEW PRODUCTS
New-to-the-world product.
New-product line.
Repositioning.
Cost reductions.
Chapter - 12
MARKETING CHANNELS
MARKETING CHANNELS
Marketing channels can be viewed as sets of interdependent organizations involved
in the process of making a product or service available for use of consumption.
Zero-level
channel
(M-C)
Manufacturer Retailer
Consumer
One-level
channel
(M-R-C)
Wholesaler Retailer
Two-level
channel
(M-W-R-C)
Wholesaler Jobber Retailer
Three-level
channel
(M-W-J-R-C)
Industrial
distribution
Industrial
Manufacturer consumer
Manufacturer’s
representative
Manufacturer’s
sales branch
Outputs Environmental
Characteristics
Lot size
Waiting time
Spaital convenience
Product variety
CHANNEL PLANNING
The Types of Middlemen
◦ Dual Distribution
◦ Facilitating Distribution
Function of Wholesalers
FULL-SERVICE WHOLESALERS
Wholesale merchants
Industrial distribution
LIMITED-SERVICE
WHOLESALEERS
Cash-and-carry wholesalers
Truck wholesalers
Producers’ cooperatives
Mail-order wholesalers
Chapter - 13
PHYSICAL
DISTRIBUTION
PHYSICAL DISTRIBUTION
It Involves
Inventory Control
◦ Order Timings
◦ Order Quantity
Materials Handling
Order Processing
Transportation
MODES OF TRANSPORTATION
Rail Roads
Motor Carriers
Air Freight
Pipelines
Water Transportation
PHYSICAL DISTRIBUTION
• Transportation
Determining
Optimal
Cost per Unit (Rupees)
Order-processing
cost per unit
Q*
Order Quantity
Chapter - 14
THE PROMOTION
EFFORT
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Media
Noise
Feedback Response
◦ Positioning is the platform for the brand
◦ Positioning is the fact of fixing locus of the
product offer in the minds
◦ Al Ries & Jack Trout “ Positioning is what you do
to the mind of the prospect.That is you position
the product to the mind of the prospect.”
◦ To create a perception of brand in consumers
mind
Positioning
MARKETING COMMUNICATION
Major tools
Advertising
Sales promotion
Publicity
Personal selling
Packaging
Public Relation
COMMON
COMMUNICATION/PROMOTION
TOOLS
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Sales Personal
Advertising Promotion Publicity Selling
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Print and Contests,games Press kits Sales presentations
broadcast ads sweepstakes, Speeches Sales meetings
Packaging-outer lotteries Seminars Telemarketing
Packaging inserts Premiums and gifts Annual reports Incentive programs
Mailings,Catalogs Sampling Salesmen samples
Motion pictures Fairs and trade show donations Fairs and trade
shows
House magazines Exhibits Public relations
Brochures and Demonstrations
booklets Couponing,Rebates
Reprints of ads Low-interest financing
Billboards Entertainment
Display signs Trade-in allowances
Point-of-purchase Trading stamps
display Tie-ins
Audiovisulas material
OBJECTIVES OF PROMOTIONAL
ACTIVITIES
1) Creating Awareness
2) Providing Information
Pervasiveness
Amplified expessiveness
Impersonality
ADVERTISING
Personal selling
Personal confrontation
Cultivation
Response
Sales Promotion
• Communication
• incentive
• invitation
Publicity
• High credibility
• Off guard
• Dramatization
Major Decisions in Advertising
Management
Message decision
Message generation
Message evaluation
and selection
Message execution
Objectives setting Budget decisions Advertising evaluation
Communication Affordable approach Communication
Objectives Percent of sales
Sales impact
Competitive parity Sales impact
Objectives
Objectives and task
Media decision
PRICE
DETERRMINATION
NINE MARKETING-MIX STRATEGY
ON PRICE
Price
High Medium Low
Product-Quality Leadership
DETERMINING DEMAND
1. Unique value effect. Buyers are less price-sensitive when the
product is more unique.
2. Substitute awareness effect. Buyers are less price-sensitive when
they are less aware of substitutes.
3. Difficult comparison effect. Buyers are less price-sensitive when
they cannot easily compare the quality of substitutes.
4. Total expenditure effect. Buyers are less price-sensitive the lower
the expenditure is as a ratio to their income.
5. End-benefit effect. Buyers are less price-sensitive the less the
expenditure is to the total cost of the end product.
6. Shared cost effect. Buyers are less price-sensitive when part of
the cost is borne by another party.
7. Sunk investment effect. Buyers are less price-sensitive when the
product is used in conjuction with assets previously bought.
8. Price-quality effect. Buyers are less price-sensitive when the
product is assumed to have more quality, prestige, or exclusiveness.
9. Inventory effect. Buyers are less price-sensitive when they cannot
store the product.
INELASTIC AND ELASTIC
DEMAND
P’2
P2
Price
P1
P’1 D
Q2 Q1 Q’2 Q’1
1
2
Cost per Unit
LRAC
(a) Cost behaviour in a fixed-size plant (b) Cost behaviour over different
size plants
PRICING METHOD
Markup Pricing
Unit Cost
Markup Pricing =
-----------------------------------
(1 - Desired return on
sales)
Target Return Pricing
Desired return x
Invested Capital
Target return price = Unit +
---------------------------------------
cost Unit
Sales
Perceived - Value Pricing
Sealed-Bid Pricing
PRICING METHOD
Low Price High Price
------------- Competitor’s prices Unique
-------------
No possible Product and product
No possible
profit at costs prices of substitutes features
demand at
this price this price
Total revenue
1,000 Target Profit
} Total Cost
800
600
400
Fixed Cost
200
PROMOTIONAL DISCRIMINATORY
PRICING PRICING
Customer-
Special event segment pricing
pricing Product-form
Cash rebates pricing
Low-interest Image pricing
financing Location pricing
Psychological Time pricing
discounting
HOW TO ADD VALUE THROUGH
DIFFERENTIATED PRICING
Cost Centres
A method of allocating indirect costs to a range of
products produced by the firm.
◦ e.g. if a firm produces three products - a, b, and c - and
has indirect costs of £1 million, assume proportion of
direct costs of 20% for a, 55% for b and 25% for c
◦ Indirect costs allocated as 20% of 1 million to a, 55% of
£1 million to b and 25% of £1 million to c
Full Costing
All costs incurred are allocated to particular cost
centres – direct costs, indirect costs, semi variable
costs and selling costs
Absorption Costing
The cost of producing one extra unit of output (the
variable costs)
Marginal Costing
The expected level of costs associated
with the production of a good/service
Actual costs – Standard costs =
Variance
Standard Costing
Total Revenue
Total Revenue = Price x Quantity Sold
Price can be raised or lowered to change revenue –
price elasticity of demand important here
◦ Different pricing strategies can be used – penetration,
psychological, etc.
Total Revenue
Break Even
Costs/Revenue TR Total
The Initially
break
revenue even
a firm
is
TR TC The lower the
determined
point
Aswill
price, occurs
incur
output
the by
where
is
lessfixed
VC The
the
total
total
costs,
price
costs
revenue
steep
therefore thecharged
generated, these the
total
and
equals
do
firm the
revenue not
total
quantity
will depend
costs –
incur
curve.
(assuming
sold
the on
firm,
– output
variableagain
incosts
this
this
or –
accurate
will
example,
sales.
be vary
these would
forecasts!) is the
determined
have to sell by
Q1 to
sum of FC+VC the
directly with
expected
generate
amount sufficient
forecast
revenue
produced. sales
to cover its
initially.
costs.
FC
Break Even
Q1 Analysis Output/Sales
Break Even Analysis
Costs/Revenue If the firm
TR (p = £3) TR (p = £2) TC chose to set
VC price higher
than £2 (say
£3) the TR
curve would
be steeper –
they would not
have to sell as
many units to
break even
FC
Q2 Q1 Output/Sales
Break Even Analysis
TR (p = £1)
Costs/Revenue TR (p = £2) If the firm
TC chose to set
VC prices lower
(say £1) it
would need to
sell more units
before
covering its
costs.
FC
Q1 Q3 Output/Sales
Break Even Analysis
TR (p = £2)
Costs/Revenue TC
Profit VC
Loss
FC
Q1 Output/Sales
Break Even Analysis
TR (p = £3) TR (p = £2)
Costs/Revenue TC
VC Assume
current sales
at Q2.
Q3 Q1 Q2 Output/Sales
•Importance of Price Elasticity of Demand
Elasticity
– what is likely to happen to sales when
Break
pricesEven Analysis
are increased or decreased?
Chapter - 15
PRICE
ADMINISTRATION
1) Quantity Discount
Cumulative Quantity Discounts
Non-Cumulative Quantity Discounts
1) Trade Discounts
2) Seasonal Discounts
3) Cash Discounts
4) Trade-in Allowances
5) Damaged good Allowances
6) Brokerage Allowances
7) Promotional Allowances
Delivered Pricing
◦ Uniform Delivered Pricing
◦ Zone Pricing
Leader Pricing
Odd Pricing
Competitive Bidding
Expected Profit =P (Bid Price – Cost Estimate)
P = Probability of winning the bid
PSYCHOLOGICAL PRICING
Thank you!!!
Any Queries?