Psychological Factors

of Crime
Prepared by: John Patrick De Jesus
Topics
1. Social Learning Theories
• Strengths and Weaknesses of Social Learning Theory
2. Differential Association theory
• Strength and weakness of Differential Association Theory
3. Differential Reinforcement Theory
• Strength and weakness of DRT
4. Containment Theory
• Strength and weakness of Containment theory
5. Intelligence Theory
• IQ and Delinquency
• Strength and weakness of Intelligence Theory
2
Introduction
• Social work theories can be borrowed from
numerous disciplines such as criminology,
law, education, politics, sociology, and
psychology. Individually, each discipline
strives to explain human behavior within its
field of study. While social learning theory
originated in psychology, its concepts apply
equally well to the study of social work.
3
What is Social Learning Theory?
• It suggests that social behavior is learned by observing
and imitating the behavior of others.
• Psychologist Albert Bandura developed the social learning
theory External link as an alternative to the earlier work of
fellow psychologist (Burrhus Frederic) B.F. Skinner, known
for his influence on behaviorism.
• The theory later evolved into the social cognitive theory in
1986 which postulates that learning takes place in a social
framework with an ever-changing and shared interaction
between the person, environment and behavior.
4
Four mediational processes that help determine whether a new
behavior is acquired:
1. Attention:
• A behavior must grab our attention before it can be imitated.
2. Retention:
• We cannot perform the behavior if we do not remember the
behavior.
3. Reproduction:
• This is the ability to reproduce a behavior we observe.
4. Motivation:
• The will to emulate the behavior. This mediational process is
referred to as vicarious reinforcement. 5
Assumptions of Social Learning Theory
Social learning theory is grounded by several key
assumptions External link:
• People learn through observation.
• Reinforcement and punishment have indirect
effects on behavior and learning.
• Mediational processes influence our behavior.
• Learning does not necessarily lead to change.
6
Strengths and Weaknesses of Social Learning Theory
• Its flexibility in explaining the differences in a person’s behavior or learning,
i.e., when there is a change in a person’s environment, the person’s behavior may
change.
• An additional strength of the social learning theory is that it allows for different
ways of learning. A person can learn through observation or direct experiences.
• Where the theory falls short is where it neglects the importance of
accountability in one’s actions. By placing greater weight on the environment, the
theory assumes one’s behavior and actions are determined by society, not by how
a person handles or processes information.
• The social learning theory further ignores ordinary developmental milestones.
Although children do not mature at identical rates, some normal milestones may
still occur irrespective of the environmental setting.
• The theory further fails to account for all behavior, more specifically in the case
when there is no apparent role model for the observer to emulate.
7
Differential Association theory
• Differential association theory proposes that
people learn values, attitudes, techniques,
and motives for criminal behavior through
their interactions with others.
• It is a learning theory of deviance that was
initially proposed by sociologist Edwin
Sutherland in 1939 and revised in 1947.
8
Nine Propositions of Differential Association Theory
• All criminal behavior is learned.
• Criminal behavior is learned through interactions with others via a process of communication.
• Most learning about criminal behavior happens in intimate personal groups and relationships.
• The process of learning criminal behavior may include learning about techniques to carry out
the behavior as well as the motives and rationalizations that would justify criminal activity and
the attitudes necessary to orient an individual towards such activity.
• The direction of motives and drives towards criminal behavior is learned through the
interpretation of legal codes in one’s geographical area as favorable or unfavorable.
• When the number of favorable interpretations that support violating the law outweigh the
unfavorable interpretations that don’t, an individual will choose to become a criminal.
• All differential associations aren’t equal. They can vary in frequency, intensity, priority, and
duration.
• The process of learning criminal behaviors through interactions with others relies on the same
mechanisms that are used in learning about any other behavior.
• Criminal behavior could be an expression of generalized needs and values, but they don’t
explain the behavior because non-criminal behavior expresses the same needs and values.

9
Strength and weakness of Differential
Association Theory
• A strength of this theory is that it emphasizes the critical role
of connections in establishing an individual's perception of
what constitutes acceptable behavior or activity.
• A drawback of the Differential Association theory, on the
other hand, is the extent to which these associations are
thought to imprint on an individual.
• Failed to take individual differences into account. Personality
traits may interact with one’s environment to create outcomes
that differential association theory cannot explain.
10
Differential Reinforcement Theory
•Differential Association Reinforcement Theory was
created in 1966 by Ronald Akers and Robert Burgess.
•The theory focuses on punishments and
reinforcements that occur AFTER an individual offends.
•The theory is a combination of Skinners behaviorism,
social learning theory, and the differential association
theory created by Edwin Sutherland.
•The theory explains that criminal behavior is learned by
the reinforcements we receive after committing deviant
behavior.
11
•We also learn behavior by watching others
commit criminal acts and the reinforcements
they receive.
•Whether or not the individual will continue to
commit a crime depends on the past, present,
and future rewards as well as anticipated
punishments.
•Punishments and rewards can be anything from
money, food, pleasant and unpleasant feelings,
as well as looks of happiness or disgust. 12
Propositions
1. Criminal behavior is learned according to the principles of operant
conditioning.
2. Criminal behavior is learned both in nonsocial situations that are
reinforcing or discriminative and through that social interaction in
which the behavior of other persons is reinforcing or discriminative
for criminal.
3. The principal part of the learning of criminal behavior occurs in
those groups which comprise the individual’s major source of
reinforcements.
4. The learning of criminal behavior, including specific techniques,
attitudes, and avoidance procedures, is a function of the effective and
available rein-forcers, and the existing reinforcement contingencies.
13
5. The specific class of behaviors which are learned and
their frequency of occurrence are a function of the
rein-forcers which are effective and available, and the
rules or norms by which these rein-forcers are applied.
6. Criminal behavior is a function of norms which are
discriminative for criminal behavior, the learning of
which takes place when such behavior is more highly
reinforced than noncriminal behavior.
7. The strength of criminal behavior is a direct function
of the amount, frequency, and probability of its
reinforcement.
14
Strength and weakness of DRT
• The strength of Criminal behavior depends on the frequency and probability of its reinforcement
(Burgess, Akers 1966: 144). •The main components include the amount of reinforcement, the
frequency of reinforcement, and the probability of reinforcement.
• Though Akers and Burgess may have had some high points in their theory there are still some
issues that were not addressed. The theory does not apply the significance of individual differences
among people. The theory does not take into account that individual difference may be biological,
psychological, and sometimes physical. These differences may affect the groups and individual
attitudes.
• Akers fails to explain the fact that we are all different and the causes of why some people may
absorb criminal behavior and others will not. One factor he could have addressed was how our
home life and beliefs can affect the outcome of participation in criminal behavior. Our genetic
makeup and family relations could alter our views on life and the people around us. Some people
are slower than others and others are just gullible. Other factors could be the lack of love and
affection that one receives on a daily basis.
• Aker also fails to explain how some people who have never came in contact with any criminal
behavior still manage to commit criminal activities. For example, say a child who has not started
school yet and is about three years old and steals a cookie from the cookie jar after their mother
told him not to. This child is committing a criminal behavior by stealing the cookie and hiding so
they can eat it before their mother comes back. 15
WALTER C. RECKLESS: CONTAINMENT THEORY
• Containment theory is a form of control theory
proposed by Walter Reckless in the 1940s-1960s.
• Walter Reckless (1899-1988) was an American
criminologist known for this containment theory of
criminology, which stated that juvenile delinquency
commonly arises from a breakdown in moral and social
forces that otherwise “contain” deviant behavior
• A theoretical perspective that strong inner containment
and reinforcing external containment provide protection
against delinquent and criminal behavior
16
• Contain – to hold someone/something within
• Containment - Control / restrain oneself, or a feeling
• Containment theory – assumes/claims that there
are a series of:
• Social factors (external factors)
• Personal factors (internal factors)
That contributes to a persons behavior including the
criminal behavior.
• There are internal and external factors that can
insulate someone in committing a crime or criminal
involvement. 17
• Search for self-factors that would explain why
some individuals succumbed to social pressures
leading to crime and delinquency, whereas
other remained relatively law abiding in the
same circumstances
• Resiliency: People who, despite facing many
criminogenic risk factors, can resist crime
• Central problem is in explaining differential
responses (the way different people respond to
different circumstances) 18
The Social Psychology of the Self
• The social transformation from life in simple
societies to complex environments placed a
different set of pressures on the individual and
the social order.
• “New pitch”: Society that emphasized freedom
and allows people to not be connected to one
another
• “Individualization of the self”: People are
separate and distinct from the majority of others
19
• Reckless later shifted his research to analyzing
the behavioral patterns of nondelinquent boys
who lived in high-delinquency neighborhoods
• Concluded that a good self-concept acted as an
insulator against the social and personal forces
that drive some individuals towards delinquency
• Focused on “push-pull” forces as explanations
of deviant behavior, including “internal” pushes
such as discontent and rebellion and “external”
pulls such as delinquent friends/acquaintances
20
Ingredients of Inner Containment Ingredients of Outer Containment
• Self-control • Presentation of a consistent moral
• Positive self-concept front to the potential deviant
• Well developed superego • Institutional reinforcement of his or
• Ego strength her norms, goals, and expectations
• High frustration tolerance
• Effective supervision and discipline
• High resistance to diversions
• High sense of responsibility • Provision for a reasonable scope of
activity
• Ability to find substitute
satisfactions • Opportunity for acceptance, identity,
• Goal orientations and
• Tension-reducing rationalization belongingness

21
Strength and weakness of Containment theory
• The theory contends that a series of external social
factors and internal qualities effectively insulate certain
individuals from criminal involvement even when
ecological variables induce others to engage in crime.
• Although initially promising, the theory was criticized
by some criminologists for various weaknesses.
• However, the theory has been subjected to very few
empirical tests and therefore the relative strengths of
its various propositions have never been properly
established.
22
What Is Intelligence?
• Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined
intelligence as "the mental abilities necessary
for adaptation to, as well as shaping and
selection of, any environmental context.
• Intelligence is a global ability to firmly perform
and to think logically and to deal precisely with
the environment. Intelligence can be defined as
a persons ability to use knowledge and solve
problems. 23
Theories of Intelligence
•Spearman’s General Intelligence (g)
•Thurstone’s Primary Mental
Abilities
•Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
•Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
24
Spearman’s General Intelligence (g)
• He used factor analysis, which is a statistical
procedure to identify clusters of related
abilities.
• He predicted the idea of general intelligence,
which is sometimes referred to as the G
Factor, or G.
• This General Intelligence could predict our
outcomes in varied academic areas.
25
Strength
• There is actually a lot of evidence to support this.
• Studies have shown that those who score high in one
area, like verbal intelligence, also tend to score highly
in other areas, like spatial reasoning.
Weakness
• Human abilities are incredibly diverse.
• One single factor couldn’t account for all
factors.
26
Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities
• He identified a number of primary mental
abilities that comprise intelligence, as
opposed to one general factor.
• The seven primary mental abilities in
Thurstone's model are verbal
comprehension, verbal fluency, number
facility, spatial visualization, perceptual
speed, memory, and inductive reasoning
27
 Mental Ability Description

Word Fluency Ability to use words quickly and fluency in performing such
tasks as rhyming, solving anagrams, and doing crossword
puzzles.
Verbal Comprehension Ability to understand the meaning of words, concepts, and
ideas.
Numerical Ability Ability to use numbers to quickly computer answers to
problems.
Spatial Visualization Ability to visualize and manipulate patters and forms in
space.
Perceptual Speed Ability to grasp perceptual details quickly and accurately
and to determine similarities and differences between
stimuli.
Memory Ability to recall information such as lists or words,
mathematical formulas, and definitions.
Inductive Reasoning Ability to derive general rules and principles from
presented information.
Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities
Strength
• It seems more accurate to have a break down.
• Good inductive reasoning skills while maybe not having
high verbal comprehension.
Weakness
• Those who do well on one of these factors also tend to
do well on the others, which suggest an underlying single
intelligence factor.
• This theory have another limitation, it tends to focus
primarily on what we would consider to be book smarts. 29
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
• Following the work of Thurstone, American psychologist
Howard Gardner built off the idea that there are multiple
forms of intelligence.
• He proposed that there is no single intelligence, but rather
distinct, independent multiple intelligences exist, each
representing unique skills and talents relevant to a certain
category.
• Gardner (1983, 1987) initially proposed seven multiple
intelligences: linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial,
musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal,
and he has since added naturalist intelligence.
30
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
Strength
• It includes more than just book smarts.
• It takes lots of other human abilities into account.
Weakness
• Intelligence’s term is not recommended to use instead it
refers to ability or talents.
• It depends on whether or not there’s any repercussion to
labelling them in intelligence versus a talent.
• There is isn’t a lot of evidence to support it, and this partially
has to do with the fact that theirs is real way to test it. This is
not supported by research. 31
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
• Robert Sternberg proposed a three-category theory of intelligence, integrating components
that were lacking in Gardner’s theory. This theory is based on the definition of intelligence
as the ability to achieve success based on your personal standards and your sociocultural
context.
• According to the triarchic theory, intelligence has three aspects: analytical, creative, and
practical (Sternberg, 1985).
• Analytical intelligence, also referred to as componential intelligence, refers to intelligence
that is applied to analyze or evaluate problems and arrive at solutions. This is what a
traditional IQ test measure.
• Creative intelligence is the ability to go beyond what is given to create novel and interesting
ideas. This type of intelligence involves imagination, innovation and problem-solving.
• Practical intelligence is the ability that individuals use to solve problems faced in daily life,
when a person finds the best fit between themselves and the demands of the
environment. Adapting to the demands environment involves either utilizing knowledge
gained from experience to purposefully change oneself to suit the environment
(adaptation), changing the environment to suit oneself (shaping), or finding a new
environment in which to work (selection).
32
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Strength
• We can reliably measure things along these 3 lines
because it’s fairly easy to define, it’s so easy to test.
Weakness
• Has fall back on the initial one, which that research has
shown that individuals who score highly on one of
these intelligences tend to score highly on the others
as well.

33
The Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
• IQ is an acronym for Intelligence Quotient. So what is
IQ? The IQ is a measurement of your intelligence and is
expressed in a number.
• A person's IQ can be calculated by having the person
take an intelligence test. The average IQ is 100. If you
achieve a score higher than 100, you are smarter than
the average person, and a lower score means you are
(somewhat) less smart.

34
• The study of the relationship of intelligence
and delinquency began with the early 19th.
Century.
• The neo-classical criminal justice doctrine
that since crime was a rational choice of
conduct, mental defectives in common with
infants and the insane, were not legally
responsible for their actions.

35
• Harry H. Goddard, one of America's most distinguished
adherents of the psychological school of crime
causation, was impelled to state, as late as 1919, that
"It is no longer to be denied that the greatest single
cause of delinquency and crime is low-grade mentality,
much of. it within the limits of feeble-mindedness." A
similar declaration was made by Dr. William Healy,
while Dr. Charles Goring, the English investigator into
Lombroso's claims, declared more conservatively that
defective intelligence was a vital constitutional factor in
the etiology of crime.'
36
While there was substantial agreement as to the facts, there was considerable
divergence as to the interpretation of the test findings, leading to such theories as:
(1) the mental defective is a type of "born criminal," i.e., the "moral idiot"; (2)
feeble-mindedness is a hereditary unit-character following Mendel's law,
accounting for the preponderance of male defective offenders;
(3) the feeble-minded characteristically commit dangerous crimes of assault and
sex assault;
(4) feeble-minded individuals commit crimes, in the absence of inhibiting social
factors, because they lack the capacity to grasp the social values of their culture,
including its social and legal definitions of right and wrong;
(5) the feeble-minded cannot foresee the consequences of their actions, hence
cannot be deterred by the threat of punishment laid down for crimes;
(6) feeble-minded are suggestible, and so respond to the criminal leadership of
brighter persons;
(7) feeble-mindedness in individuals reared in families and neighborhoods where
delinquent example is common, leads to delinquency.
37
38
39
40