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CONTENTS:
• Overview of the normal cell cycle
• Control of the growth and multiplication of
cells
• Cellular Adaptation
• ONCOLOGY
– Definition
– Fallacies
• 5 basic properties of cancer cells
• How cancer begins
• Factors contributing to cancer cells
formation
Overview of the Normal Cell Cycle
• The normal cell growth and cycle several phases:

– Interphase: Contains 3 subphases –

cellular production of RNA and proteins
synthesis of DNA and proteins and new
chromosomes appear
RNA synthesis

– Mitosis
• Mitosis is divided into 4 stages:
– Prophase-
the chromatin condenses to form visible
chromosomes
Each chromosome consist of 2 chromatids joined
at the centromere
The centrioles moves to the opposite ends of the
cell.
The nucleolus and nuclear envelope appear
– Metaphase
Chromosomes align at the center of the cell in
association with the spindle fibers.
• Anaphase
– Cromatids separate to form 2 sets of identical
chromosomes
– Chromosomes, assisted by spindle fibers, moves
towards the centrioles of the end of the cell
• Telophase
– The chromosomes disperse
– The nuclei and nucleoli form
– Cytoplasm begin to divide and form 2 cells.

 new interphase begins

How the growth and multiplication of cells
is usually controlled?
Repair of daily wear and tear

Everyday, we loose many millions of cell in the

diff parts of our body. The cells that are lost
are being replaced daily by new cell growth
and multiplication.

 That’s how the WEAR AND TEAR takes its toll- there
is always an appropriate supply of new cells ready
to replace damaged one. . .
 Response to injury
In an event of an injury or any trauma, cell
growth has to accelerate in order to repair
the damage and to produce what we
recognize as healing.

Control of Growth
Ex. There is a gap in the tissues created by an incision…
The growing skin cells have to fill up the gap before they
stop growing. At this point, the accelerated growth
slows down to the normal (contact inhibition).
Cellular Adaptation
• Hypertrophy
– increase in the normal size of
cells
• Atrophy
– Shrinkage of cell size
• Hyperplasia
– Increase in the number of normal
cells
• Metaplasia
– Conversion from the normal pattern of
differentiation of 1 type of cell into
another type of cell not normal for that
tissue.
• Dysplasia
– Alteration in shape, size, appearance and
distribution of cells.
• Anaplasia
– Disorganized, irregular cells that have no
structure and have loss of
differentiation; the result is almost
always malignant.
ONCOLOGY
study of cancer: the branch of
medicine that deals with the study
and treatment of malignant tumors.
Cancer as……
• A single disease?
• An Alien invasion??!!
FALLACY!!!
• A mystery?
• A psychological
problem???
= (medical term: malignant neoplasm) is a class
of diseases in which a group of cells display:
uncontrolled growth (division beyond the normal
limits),
 invasion (intrusion on and destruction of
adjacent tissues),
and sometimes metastasis (spread to other
locations in the body via lymph or blood).
5 basic properties of cancer cells:
Tissue boundary
1. 2.

CA cells Cells of
neighboring
CA cells tissue

CA cells go on CA cells are capable

growing and of crossing the
normal boundaries of
multiplying when
the tissue they start
they should not. in.
3. 4.
5. Some Cancer may produce
substances that interfere with
the control of various body fnx,
and may affect nerves muscles,
saltCAregulation
cells and other fnx.

CA cells can get

into the
bloodstream or CA cells can get
any other can establish
channels or route. secondary tumors
at distant areas.
Cancers are often referred to by terms that contain
a prefix related to the cell type in which the cancer
originated and a suffix such as -sarcoma,
-carcinoma, or just -oma. Common prefixes
include:
• Adeno- = gland • Melano- = pigment
• Chondro- = cartilage cell
• Erythro- = red blood • Myelo- = bone
cell marrow
• Hemangio- = blood • Myo- = muscle
vessels • Osteo- = bone
• Hepato- = liver • Uro- = bladder
• Lipo- = fat • Retino- = eye
• Lympho- = white • Neuro- = brain
blood cell
 Cancer types can be grouped into broader
categories. The main categories of cancer
include:

• Carcinoma - cancer that begins in the skin or in tissues

that line or cover internal organs.
• Sarcoma - cancer that begins in bone, cartilage, fat,
muscle, blood vessels, or other connective or supportive
tissue.
• Leukemia - cancer that starts in blood-forming tissue
such as the bone marrow and causes large numbers of
abnormal blood cells to be produced and enter the blood.
• Lymphoma and myeloma - cancers that begin in the
cells of the immune system.
• Central nervous system cancers - cancers that begin
in the tissues of the brain and spinal cord.
In a cancerous cell, permanent gene
alterations, or mutations, cause the cell to
malfunction. For a cell to become
cancerous, usually three to seven different
mutations must occur in a single cell.
These genetic mutations may take many
years to accumulate, but the convergence
of mutations enables the cell to become
cancerous.
• Cells are the building blocks of living things. Cancer grows
out of normal cells in the body. Normal cells multiply when
the body needs them, and die when the body doesn't need
them. Cancer appears to occur when the growth of cells in
the body is out of control and cells divide too quickly. It can
Theoccur
also bodywhen
is made
cells up of many
“forget” how totypes
die. of cells. These
cells grow and divide in a controlled way to produce
more cells as they are
• Cancer begins in genes, bits needed to keep
of biochemical the body
instructions
healthy.
composedWhen cells become
of individual segments oldof or
thedamaged,
long, coiledthey die
molecule deoxyribonucleic
and are replaced acidwith
(DNA). Genes
new contain the
cells.
instructionssometimes
However, to make proteins,
this molecular
orderly laborers
process thatwrong.
goes serve
as building blocks of cells, control chemical reactions, or
The genetic
transport materialsmaterial (DNA)
to and from of aThe
cells. cellproteins
can become
damaged
produced orin achanged,
human cell producing mutations that
determine the function of each affect
cell, andcell
normal ultimately,
growththe andfunction of theWhen
division. entire this
body.happens,
cells do not die when they should and new cells form
when the body does not need them. The extra cells
may form a mass of tissue called a tumor.
 A. Safety Systems Fail
• While each human cell performs its own specialized
function, it also exerts influence on the cells around it.
Cells communicate with one another via receptors,
protein molecules on the cell surface. A cell releases
chemical messages, which fit into the surface receptors
of cells nearby, much as a key fits into a lock. A cell may
instruct other cells in its neighborhood to divide, for
example, by releasing a growth-promoting signal, or
growth factor. The growth factor binds to receptors on
adjacent cells, activating a message within each
individual cell. This message travels to the nucleus, where
a cell’s genes are located.
1. Proto-oncogenes become oncogenes

Growth
Growth Factor
Factor Cell
Cell Nucleus
Nucleus Proto
Proto
oncogenes
oncogenes

These
These genes
genes
IN CANCEROUS CELLS: produce
produce
proteins
proteins that
that
Mutations
Mutations
stimulate
stimulate the
the
cell
cell to
to divide.
divide.
A
A gene
gene that
that
instructs
instructs
Cell
the
the cell
cell to
to grow
grow
and Division
and divide
divide Malfnx
repeatedly
repeatedly
Oncogenes Malfnx of
of P.O.
P.O.
without
without
stimulation
stimulation fromfrom
neighboring
neighboring cells cells
2. Tumor Suppressor Genes Stop Working

Growth Neighboring
Neighboring cells
cells
Growth inhibitor
inhibitor Come
Come to
to the
the rescue
rescue

Malfnx
Malfnx
Cell
Cell
CA
NOT
NOT YET
YET

Mutations
Mutations
Continuation…
Continuation…
Malfnx
Malfnx Growth
Growth inhibitor
inhibitor
Cell
Cell

NUCLEUS
NUCLEUS

Tumor
Tumor
suppressor
suppressor
genes
genes
3. Cell Cycle Clock Malfunctions
• The cell nucleus contains a collection of interacting
proteins that control cell division. Sometimes called
the cell cycle clock, this group of proteins interprets
incoming messages at several checkpoints in the cell
division cycle. At these checkpoints, the clock
evaluates the health of the cell. If conditions are
right, the clock activates certain proto-oncogenes,
which produce proteins that trigger the cell to enter
the next stage of the cell cycle. If conditions are not
right, certain tumor suppressor genes produce
proteins that prevent the cell from proceeding with
cell division.
CELL

te c ts Instructs
Instructs the
the cell
cell
de to
to undergo
undergo
DNA apoptosis
apoptosis
Cell cycle damage
clock
ac
ti
va
t es A tumor suppressor
p53
p53 gene that prevents
the cell from
reproducing until the
damage is repaired.
• In a cancerous cell, one or more
mutations prevent these genes from doing
their jobs. When mutated, p53 allows a
cell to continue to divide, even with
damaged DNA. This can lead to additional
mutations in proto-oncogenes or tumor
suppressor genes. In some cases,
mutations occur in genes that produce
proteins to repair damaged DNA. Such
mutations can lead to yet other
mutations because the faulty DNA cannot
duplicate properly during cell division.
 i
l ..n
l
A l ..
a l
4. Cells Achieve Immortality
A normal cell has a life span of about 40 cell
divisions. This life span is controlled in
part by telomeres, protective segments at the
ends of the cell’s DNA. Telomeres shorten with
each cell division until they can no longer
protect the DNA. At this point cell division
severely damages the DNA, ultimately killing
the cell. This normal process ensures that
older cells, which may have accumulated
mutations, no longer reproduce.

Cancer cells escape this protective mechanism

by producing a protein called telomerase.
Telomerase extends the length of telomeres
indefinitely, rendering the cells immortal and
capable of never-ending cell division.
B. Cells break free and spread
• Normal cells adhere to each other
and to a fibrous meshwork called
an extracellular matrix. This matrix
exists throughout all tissues and
provides the structural support on
which cells grow and form organs
and other complex tissues. While a
normal cell will often die if it cannot
adhere to an extracellular matrix,
cancer cells survive without this
matrix.
1. Tumor Forms
• A tumor is a mass of cells not dependent upon
an extracellular matrix. These cells can grow
on top of each other, creating a mass of
2. Tumor
abnormal Spread
cells. Often a tumor develops its own
network of tiny blood vessels to supply itself
with nutrient-rich blood, a process called
angiogenesis.
• There are two general types of tumors. Benign
tumors do not invade other tissues and are
limited to one site, making surgical removal
possible and the odds for a full recovery
excellent. Some benign tumors are quite
harmless and are not surgically removed unless
they are unsightly or uncomfortable.
 How 1 step can lead you astray?
(Factors)
• Age
• Gender
• Geographic Location
• Genetics
• Immune Disturbance
• Chemical Agents
• Race
• Smoking
• Alcohol
• Diet
 Reported by: P. G. De Juan BSN4A
SACR Batch 2011

The end…..