CSM 478 COMPUTER NETWORKS

LECTURE 2: INTERNETWORKING
BASICS

FRIMPONG TWUM
 Networking
overview
 Recap from Lecture 1
 What is an internetwork? How is it created?
 What is the difference between the Internet
and www?
 Define 3 types of network nodes
(workstations, hosts, Servers)
 How does nodes attach to network?

Answer: Nodes are attached to networks

through communications media via Network
Interface Card (NIC)
 What is NIC?
 The NIC is a board that is installed in the computer
or network device.
 In many computers, the NIC is built into the main
board.
 One end of the NIC is accessible on the outside of
the workstation via a connector for attachment to the
communications media.
 The NIC may also be a separate card that is
inserted into an expansion slot on the computer.
 Imprinted on a NIC is a Hardware address known as
Media Access Control (MAC) address.
 MAC addresses (aka Physical Addresses) is unique
for every host device.
NIC EXPANSION
CARD
NIC EXPANSION
CARD (PCMCIA)
 NETWORKING HARDWARE OR
NETWORKING DEVICES
 Repeaters (also called amplifiers) – electronic devices
that receive signals and amplify and send them along
the network
 Hub/Switches – electronic device (with a number of
ports) used in a LAN to link groups of computers
 Routers - electronic devices used to ensure
messages are sent to their intended destinations
 Bridge – consists of hardware and/or software
that allows communication between two
similar networks
 Gateway – consists of hardware and/or software that
allows communications between dissimilar networks
 REPEATERS
A common problem in the networking world is that of weakening
electrical signals.  Electrical signals traveling through wires (such as
copper wires used in most networks), weaken due to the wire's
electrical resistance.  This effect limits the lengths of the cable that can
be used.  A repeater will overcome this limit, when there is a need to
connect two computers at a larger distance.
A repeater is connected to two cable segments.  Any electrical signal
reaching the repeater from one segment, will be amplified and
retransmitted to the other segment.

An illustration of a repeater at work

The electrical signal entering the repeater at one end is weakened.
The repeater amplifies the electrical signals and resends the data.
 HUBS

 The original Ethernet LANs (PHYSICAL BUS) relied on certain physical

characteristics of the cable carrying the network data (usually coaxial
cable).  New Ethernet technologies introduced new cable types that
were unable to fulfill the original physical requirements.  New devices -
HUBS - were introduced to simulate those characteristics.
 Simply put, the hub's major function is to replicate data it receives from
one device attached to it to all other devices.
 Using hubs in your network can contribute to congestion on your
Ethernet network
 A BASIC LAN USING A HUB

 How does Bob communicate with Sally?

 How many COLLISION DOMAIN(S) are
there?
 How many BROACAST DOMAIN(S) are
there?
 How does Bob
communicate with Sally?
 The two hosts (Bob and Sally) communicate using
their hardware or MAC addresses
How does Bob get Sally’s MAC address since he
knows only Sally’s name and does not even have her
IP address yet?
 Bob will begin what is known as Hostname to IP
address resolution since he knows only Sally’s name
 Scenario 1 – If the two hosts are on different
Networks, then this will Require a Domain Name
Service (DNS)
 Scenario 2 – If the two hosts are on the same LAN,
then Bob can just send a BROADCAST massage to
all hosts on the network to request for the required
 Scenario 2: Hostname to
IP Address resolution
 Before the name (Sally) is resolved, the first thing
Bob has to do is to BROADCAST on the LAN to get
sally’s MAC address so he can communicate to her
PC and resolve her name to an IP address
A simple name resolution broadcast message from
Bob to Sally is as shown

 The NetBIOS Name Service (NBNS) is a legacy protocol, superseded by many

functions of DNS. NetBIOS is usually only used over local networks, because it
doesn't scale well past a few dozen workstations. Over vast TCP/IP networks,
DNS is far more versatile and useful. The NBNS protocol is also known as
Windows Internet Name Service (WINS) on Windows systems.
 Bus Topology
(One Collision Domain and One Broadcast
Domain)

4
-
1
 Star Or Hub Topology
(One Collision Domain and One
Broadcast Domain)
 NETWORK SEGMENTATION
 As the number of hosts on a hub network
increases, the network performance
deteriorate. Hub networks are usually limited
to a maximum of up to ten (10) hosts.

 NOTE: Hubs do not segment a network.

Hubs just connect hosts on a particular
network segment together.
 NETWORK
SEGMENTATION ctnue.
 Itis however likely the number of hosts
will rise at some point and we’ll have to
break up one large Hub network into a
bunch of smaller ones
 The network terminology for breaking up
a big network into a number of smaller
ones is called Network Segmentation.
 We segment a network with devices like
Switches, Routers, and Bridges.
 Network Segmentation
with a SWITCH

 How many COLLISION DOMAIN(S) are there?

 How many BROACAST DOMAIN(S) are there?

 The SWITCH replaces the HUB, and break up the

collision domains.
 Each network segment connected to the switch is now
a separate collision domain.
 There is however still one (1) broadcast domain.
 CAUSES OF LAN
TRAFFIC CONGESTION
 Above network design still has problem with traffic
congestion. Causes of LAN traffic congestion
include:
 Too many hosts in a single broadcast domain
 Broadcast storm
 Multicasting
 Low Bandwidth
 Adding hubs for connectivity to the network
 A bunch of ARP or IPX traffic
 NOTE: A switch does not break up Broadcast Domain.
 Using a switch is an inexpensive way to connect a
couple of PCs together for home or small office network.
 ROUTERS
 Routers are used to connect separate networks
together and route packets of data between
them.
 Routers, by default, break up a Broadcast
Domain (Thus: the set of all devices on a
network segment that hear all the broadcasts on
that segment).
 Routers in addition to breaking up broadcast
domains, also break up collision domains
 Routers create an internetwork and provide
connections to WAN services
 ROUTERS ctnue…

 Each host in above network is connected to its own collision

domain.
 The ROUTER in above network has created two(2) broadcast
domains and also provides connections to WAN services
through its serial interface.
 Some advantages of
Using Routers
 UnlikeSwitches, Routers by default do not
forward broadcasts.
 Routers can filter a network based on layer 3
(Network Layer) information (e.g. IP address)

Functions of a Router
 Packet Switching
 Packet filtering

 Internetwork communication

 Path selection
 ROUTERS

 

                                                      

                          
Routers connect two or more networks and forward data
packets between them.  When data arrives from one of
the segments, the router decides, according to it's
routing table, to which segment to forward that data.
 Router vrs. Switch
 Routers are really Switches. Routers are actually known and
called Layer 3 switches
 Routers operate at layer 3 of the OSI model, & TCP/IP model
 Switches (a.k.a. Layer 2 Switches) operate at layer 2 of the
OSI model, and TCP/IP model
 Switches do not create internetworks
 Switches do not break up broadcast domains by default but
break up collision domains by default
 Switches main purpose is to make a LAN work better by
providing more bandwidth to LAN users
 Switches do not forward packets as do Routers. They instead,
switch frames from one port to another within a switched
network
 Switches creates separate collision domains but a single
broadcast domain. Routers on the other hand provide a
separate broadcast domain for each of its interface
 BRIDGES
 A bridge is a network device that filters data traffic from one
network to another network
 Bridges reduce the amount of traffic on a LAN (fig.1) by
dividing the LAN into 2 network segments as shown (fig.2)

fig. 1

fig.2
 BRIDGES ctnue…
 Bridges operate at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the
OSI model.
 Bridges inspect incoming traffic and decide whether
to forward or discard it.
 A bridge examines each data frame on a LAN,
"passing" those known to be within the same LAN
segment , and forwarding those known to be on the
other interconnected LAN segment.
 In bridging networks, computer or node addresses
(MAC addresses) have no specific relationship to
location. For this reason, messages are sent out to
every address on the network and accepted only by
the intended destination node.
 BRIDGES ctnue…
 Bridges learn which MAC addresses are on which
network and develop a learning table (aka. Bridging
Table so that subsequent messages can be forwarded
to the right network.
 Bridges interconnects LANs and prevent broadcasting
of data frames to all possible destinations as this
would flood a larger LAN with unnecessary traffic.
 Unlike bridging networks, router networks such as the
Internet use an addressing scheme (IP addresses)
that have specific relationship to location. Routers
assigns addresses to nodes so that packets can be
forwarded only in one general direction rather than
forwarded in all directions.
 BRIDGES ctnue…
 A bridge is sometimes combined with a router in a
product called a brouter.
 Bridges serve a similar function as switches, that
also operate at Layer 2. Traditional bridges, though,
support one network boundary, whereas switches
usually offer four or more hardware ports. Switches
are sometimes called "multi-port bridges" for this
reason.
 You would use a bridge in a network to reduce
collisions within broadcast domains and to increase
the number of collision domains in your network.
Doing this provides more bandwidth for users.
 An example network with
all Internetwork devices

 Remember the router will not only break up

broadcast domains for every LAN interface, but also
break up collision domains.
 GATEWAY

 "Gateway" is a term that was once used to refer to a routing device. 

Today, in the TCP/IP world, the term "router" is used to describe such a
device.

The term gateway now refers to special-purpose devices, that perform

protocol conversions.  Gateways implement application layer
conversions of information received from various protocols.

 Examples of gateways found on today's markets are:

 VocalTec Gateway: A gateway that converts human speech traveling on
analog phone lines into local area network protocol data, and visa-versa.
 RadVision Gateway: Converts video from digital phone lines into local area
network protocol data, and visa-versa.
 MODEMS

An illustration of data sent using a modem and a regular

telephone line.

A modem is a device that converts digital data originating from a

terminal or computer, to analog signals used by voice
communication networks such as the telephone system. At one
end, modems convert the digital pulses to audible tones and
convert audio tones back to digital pulses at the other.
The word "Modem" stands for "MOdulator-DEModulator".
 MODEMS
 Transmission speed

Modems are available in different transmission speeds, which

are measured in BPS (bits per second) also called BAUD rate.
Standard modems speeds: 9600 baud, 14400 baud, 28800
baud, 33600 baud, 56800 baud.
 
 Internal/External

Internal modems are electronic cards. An internal modem is

installed in one of the computer's expansion slot.
External modems are fully functioning external devices. The
external modem is connected to a computer using a serial
cable to one of the computer's serial ports, and draws power
from an external power source.
 EXAMPLE OF
FIREWALL

                                                                               
     

 Firewalls are systems that establish access control policies

among networks. They can block information from entering
a network or from getting out of that network, they can
permit different users to perform different kinds of
operations, according to the user's authorizations.
 OTHER COMMUNICATION
PROTOCOLS
 File transfer protocol (FTP) – used to transmit files.
 Simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP) – used to
transmit e-mail messages.
 Post office protocol (POP) – allows the recipient to
retrieve messages.
 Wireless application protocol – enables wireless
devices to access and use the Internet using a
client/server network.
 802.11 – protocol for wireless LAN technology
 DATA TRANSMISSION
CHARACTERISTICS
 Bandwidth (rate of transmission)
 Analog or Digital (type of signal)
 Analog transmission – takes the form of
continuous waves transmitted over a medium at a
certain frequency rage
 Digital transmission – sends data in the form of bits

 Serial or Parallel (order of bits)

 Serial transmission – all of the data bits are
transmitted one bit after another in a continuous
line
 Parallel transmission – data bits are sent at the
same time along multiple paths
 COMMUNICATIONS
SOFTWARE
 E-Mail Software – used to send and receive
electronic messages using the Internet
 Web Browser – allows users to access and
view Web pages
 Groupware – allows groups of people on a
network to share information and to
collaborate on various projects
INTERNET PROTOCOLS