Chapter 2

Air Flow Principles

Duct Design
It is caused as a result of pressure differential
between two points.
– Flow is from an area of high energy (or pressure)
to area(s) of lower energy.
Air moves according to three fundamental laws
of physics:
– conservation of mass
– conservation of energy
– conservation of momentum.
•Conservation
  of mass
– the amount of air mass coming into a ductwork system is
equal to the amount of air mass leaving
the junction.
The law of energy conservation
– converted from one form to another
– (Pressure loss) 1-2 = (Total pressure) 1 - (Total pressure) 2
Conservation of momentum
– If there is no external unbalanced force there is no
change in linear momentum of air flow
 Duct Pressure
Duct system is pressurized by three pressures:
1. Static pressure:
– the air pressure in the duct used for fan selection.
2. Velocity pressure:
– generated by the velocity and weight of the
air used for measuring the flow
3. Total pressure:
– used to find velocity pressure.
TP = VP + SP
NB.
• the total pressure is equal to the sum of the static
and velocity pressures @ every point in duct
• It is difficult to measure duct velocity pressure at
the wall. So it will be found by subtracting static
pressure from the total pressure

The total pressure generally drops along the air

flow because of frictional and turbulence losses.
 Classification of duct systems
based on the pressure and velocity
• Low pressure systems
– Velocity ≤ 10 m/s, static pressure ≤ 5 cm H2O (g)
• Medium pressure systems:
– Velocity ≤ 10 m/s, static pressure ≤ 15 cm H2O (g)
• High pressure systems:
– Velocity > 10 m/s, Ps 15<ps ≤ 25 cm H2O (g)
Recommended air velocities depend mainly on the
application and the noise criteria. Typical
recommended velocities are:
– Residences: 3 m/s to 5 m/s
– Theatres: 4 to 6.5 m/s
– Restaurants: 7.5 m/s to 10 m/s
• If nothing is specified,
– for main ducts use a velocity of 5 to 8 m/s
– For branches a velocity of 4 to 6 m/s.
– For ships and aircrafts use air velocities as high as 30
m/s to reduce the space requirement.
 Based on SHAPES
Ducts depending on shape
– round, square, or rectangular shape
Round Duct
– Most efficient b/c of its lower pressure drop
◌ less fan horsepower and smaller equipment.
─ less surface area and requires less insulation
─ available in longer lengths
◌ eliminating costly field joints
– less breakout noise
– promote healthier indoor environments
Disadvantage of round duct:-
– need more clear height for installation.
For complex building a combination of a
rectangular plenum and round branches sometimes
is a good compromise
 Rectangular Ducts
They are much easier to install between joists and
studs
Disadvantages
– create higher pressure drop;
– use more pounds of metal for the same air-flow rate as
round ducts;
– Their joint length is limited to the sheet widths stocked
by the contractor;
– Their joints are more difficult to seal;
– There is excessive noise if not properly supported.
 Oval Duct
• have smaller height requirements than round ducts
• retain most of the advantages of the round ducts.
Disadvantages
– It is difficult to fabricate fittings or modify in the field.
– Difficulty of handling and shipping larger sizes;
– Tendency of these ducts to become more round under
pressure; and,
– In large aspect ratios, difficulties of assembling oval slip
joints.
 Equivalent Diameter
Equivalent diameter (Deq) is the diameter of a
circular duct that will give the same pressure drop
at the same air flow as the rectangular duct.

where,
p = perimeter of oval duct
A = cross-sectional area
a = length of major axis
b = length of minor axis
 Equivalent Cross-sectional Area

•Find
  the cross sectional area of the round duct.
Then use;
For rectangular duct
For oval duct
Note that:-
– the cross sectional areas of the rectangular and oval
ducts will always be larger than that of the round
duct with the same equivalent diameter.
 Duct sizing

Three methods
– Equal friction method
– Velocity reduction method
– Static regain method
 EQUAL FRICTION METHOD

◌ Select maximum air velocity in main duct and

flow rate.
◌ Determine the friction rate per 100 feet of duct
length and select the diameter.
◌ Determine diameters for all other sections of the
ductwork.
◌ Calculate the total friction loss in the duct system
by multiplying the friction loss per 100-foot of
length to the equivalent length of the most critical
path of the ductwork having maximum resistance.
Example:-
Size the ventilation ductwork in an extract system,
which removes 0.8 m3/s from a kitchen.
– Use a duct pressure drop per metre of 1.0 Pa/m.
– The ductwork should be square.
• From figure, The corresponding duct diameter
can be read between 0.40, and 0.45 metres
diameter.
• Careful examination will reveal that the design
point is about 0.41 metres.
• This is 410 mm diameter.
 Example (cont.)
•Convert
  this to an appropriate square size.
• Area (Circle) = x r2
• Cross Sectional Area of Duct (CSA)= x 0.2052 =
0.132 m2
• For square duct of same CSA, one side = (0.132)0.5 =
0.363 m
The next standard size of galvanised sheet metal
ductwork would be 400mm x 400mm.
 Velocity Reduction Method
This method sizes the duct by varying the velocity
in the main and branch ducts.
◌ Select suitable velocities in the main and branch
ducts.
◌ Find the diameters of the main and branch ducts from
air flow rates and velocities. The velocity in duct can be
expressed as:
A=Q/v
Where,
A = duct area
Q = air flow rate
v = air speed
◌ From the velocities and duct dimensions obtained in the
previous step, find the frictional pressure drop for the
main and branch ducts using the friction chart above.
 Pressure Losses
The system resistance in ductwork has three
components:
– Friction loss
• caused by duct size, roughness of duct walls, and
air velocity
– Dynamic loss
• caused by changes in air velocity and direction
– Equipment pressure loss
• caused by components such as diffusers, coils,
and filters
 Duct Friction Losses

Resistance to air flow produces certain friction

losses that vary with:
– Velocity of air
– Size of duct (smaller diameter duct has more friction)
– Roughness of the material
– Length of the duct
 Pressure Loss in Fitting
• Zeta (z) factors are to be used with the Velocity
Pressure to find fittings resistances.
• Zeta (z) factors are pressure loss factors.
• These allow for the resistance of fittings in
ductwork systems which can be quite significant
compared to straight runs of duct.
• Pressure Loss (or resistance) (Pa) = zeta
factor x Velocity Pressure (Pa)
Δ=ζ ρ v2/2
•  1. Bend – mitred and radiused on both inside and
outside.

Outside Radius

Inside Radius

Zeta factor = 0.67

•  2. Rectangular Duct Branch

Branch

VP2
VP3

VP1
Main
Duct
Zeta factor = 0.67
 
 

 2. Rectangular Duct Branch

Straight Through’
To Branch 1 to 3 Branch
1 to 2
Velocity Velocity
Zeta Zeta
pressure pressure VP2
factor factor
ratio ratio
VP2/VP1 (z) VP3/VP1 (z) VP3

0.6 0.44 0.6 1.60

0.8 0.09 0.8 0.78 VP1
1.0 0.04 1.0 0.55 Main Duct
1.2 0.02 1.2 0.45
 
 
Examples of Zeta Factors

 3. Tapered Reduction

Zeta factor
Included
angle Taper both Taper one
q sides side

30o 0.02 0.07

45o 0.04 0.20
60o 0.07 0.40
 DUCT PRESSURE DROP CALCULATION
 
NOTES:
1.Keep one side 300 mm high.
2.Ductwork to be rectangular galvanised steel.
3.There are no additional pressure losses.
4.Neglect entry or exit losses from the section.

12 metres Bend –
Air flow rate Radiused on
1.5 m3/s inside and
outside
 
 

Duct Sizing Table

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Pressure Loss
Press
Cumula
ure Fittings Total
Leng Flow tive
drop Duct Velocity pressure loss Straig Pressu
Sectio th Rate Velocity Fitting Pressur
per Size Pressure factor or ht re
n   (m3/s  (m/s) s e
metre (mm) (Pa) Duct Loss
(m) )
(Pa/m z (zeta) factor (Pa) (Pa)
Loss
(Pa) (Pa)
)

A 12 1.5 1.0 0.51 metres Vel = VP = 0.5 x 1 . 30.6 x 12 x 20.5  

dia. vol/CSA 1.2 x 7.142 z factor = 0.67 0.67 1.0 +  
CSA = 0.204 = 1.5 / 0.7 x = 30.6 Pa from     12.0  
m2 0.3 (EXAMPLES = 20.5      
Rectangular = 7.14 m/s OF z zeta   = 32.5  
Width = FACTORS) = 12.0 = 32.5
0.204 / 0.3  
= 0.681 m TOTAL z
say duct size factor = 0.67
is;  
700mm x 300  
mm high  
 
 Duct Sizing Table
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Pressu Fittings Pressure Loss
Velocit Cumula
Leng Flow re pressure loss Total
Duct Velocit y tive
th Rate drop Straigh Pressu
Section Size y Pressur factor or Fittings Pressure
  (m3/s per t Duct re Loss
(m) ) metre
(mm)  (m/s) e z (zeta) (Pa)
(Pa) (Pa)
Loss
(Pa) factor (Pa)
(Pa/m)
 NOTES ON DUCT PRESSURE DROP CALCULATION
 
1. Divide the system into sections. A section is from one
branch to another or in parts of the system with a steady
volume flow rate.
2. Size the index circuit first, that is the circuit with the
highest resistance to air flow. Normally the index
circuit is the longest circuit, but not always so check if
necessary.
3. Branches should be included in the downstream
section.
4. Contractions should be included in the downstream
section rather than the upstream section for the same
reason as in part .
 TYPICAL AIR VELOCITIES FOR DUCTS
 
Air Velocity (m/s)
Building
Main Duct Branch
Domestic 4 3
Auditoria 5 3-4
Hotel bedroom, Conference hall 5-6 3-4

Private office, Library, Hospital ward 6 4

General office, Restaurant, Dept. store 7.5 5

Cafeteria, Supermarket, Machine

9 6
room
Factory, Workshop 10-12 7.5
EXAMPLE CAFETERIA OF DUCT PRESSURE DROP CALCULATION
  Radiused
bend
A
Supply
Fan
Intake
Louvre
Pressure
loss or z B
factor = 6.5

Outlet Diffuser
– Pressure D
loss or
z factor = 3.5
EXAMPLE CAFETERIA OF DUCT PRESSURE DROP CALCULATION
 
Air Flow
Length
Section Rate
(m)
(m3/s)
A 1.20 10
B 0.90 3
C 0.60 6
D 0.30 8

NOTES:
1. Keep one side 350 mm high.
2. Ductwork to be rectangular galvanised steel.
3. There are no additional pressure losses.
4. Tapered reductions are at 45 degrees.
 EXAMPLE CAFETERIA OF DUCT PRESSURE DROP CALCULATION
 
• The velocity for the main ducts, section
A,B,C do not exceed 9 m/s from the Table.
• The velocity for the branch duct, section D
also does not exceed the value of 6 m/s from
the Table
• The fan should be capable of delivering 1.2
m3/s against a pressure of 305 Pa.
• A percentage addition may be added to these
figures for a design margin
• If a 700mm wide x 500mm high louvre is used then
the sizing nomogram gives a pressure drop of 69 Pa
for a air flow rate of 1.2 m3/s.
• This is a lot less than the previously calculated
pressure drop of 183 Pa so this louvre would
significantly reduce fan pressure.
• We could also examine the outlet diffuser resistance.
• The Outlet Diffuser pressure drop is; Outlet Diffuser
- z x V.P. = 3.5 x 14.4 = 50 Pa.
• Aircell polymer louvre faced diffuser.
• The air flow rate in section D is 0.3 m3/s = 300 l/s.
• If a M600 diffuser is used it will fit into a ceiling tile
and have less pressure drop than a M450.
• The performance a 4 way diffuser supplying 315
l/s gives a Ps (Static pressure drop) of 9 Pa.
• This is a lot less than the previously calculated
pressure drop of 50 Pa so this diffuser would also
reduce fan pressure.
• The new fan pressure is; 305 - 183 - 50 + 69
+ 9 = 150 Pa. The new fan rating is; 1.2 m3/s
against a pressure of 150 Pa.
• To be more accurate we could add resistances for;
transformation pieces at the Intake louvre and
fan, VCD’s (volume control dampers), flexibles at
fan, plenum box at outlet diffuser.
 FAN SELECTION
Fan:-
– fluid machine that is used to move and induce flow of
a gas . i.e. gas pump
– Used to increase the gas pressure and energy that used
to overcome frictional and component losses .
– generate pressure differences in excess of 30 in. wg
are known as compressors
 Types of Fans
There are two types of fans
depending on path of air flow
through it.
– Axial fan
– Centrifugal fan
Axial Fan
– gas flow enters and leaves the fan in a
straight line.
– The fluid flows through the impeller
and parallel to the driveshaft
– used for large volumes and low
pressure
Centrifugal Fan
– an impeller wheel, rotates within an enclosure or
fan housing
– Air enters the fan axially, through one or both sides
and is propelled radially through the impeller and
discharge outlet.
• Categorized depending on blade shapes
– Radial
– Forward curved
– Backward inclined
Easy, High P, Contamination

small P, low tip speed, clean

For high pressure and eff

Efficient than back warded

 Fan Components

The major components of a typical centrifugal fan

include the fan wheel, fan housing, drive mechanism,
and inlet dampers and/or outlet dampers.
The fan drive determines the speed of the fan wheel
and the extent to which this speed can be varied. The
types of fan drives can be grouped into three basic
categories:
• Direct drive
• Belt drive
• Variable drive
 FAN DRIVE
direct drive :-
• the fan wheel is linked directly to the shaft of
the motor. This means that the fan wheel speed
is identical to the motor rotational speed. With
this type of fan drive, the fan speed cannot be
varied.
• economical for low volume (2000 cfm or less)
and low static pressure (0.50 in. or less).
Belt driven fans use multiple belts that rotate in a
set of sheaves mounted on the motor shaft and the
fan wheel shaft.
Belt Driven Centrifugal fan
FAN DRIVE

Variable drive fans the fan wheel speed cab be varied

by varying the motor speed using variable frequency
drive. The fan speed controls are often integrated into
automated systems to maintain the desired fan
performance over a variety of process operating
conditions.
Performance of Fan
 Project I
Select suitable fan for a given building
– Write literature review about
• air distribution,
• duct and its design and
• Fun, its types and selection criteria
– Size the satisfactory duct for the selected building
– Select appropriate fun