Chapter.

Current and Resistance

1
4.1. Electric current:
 We study the flow of electric charges through
a piece of material. The amount of flow
depends on the material through which the
charges are passing and the potential
difference across the material. whenever there
is a net flow of charge through some region, an
electric current is said to exit.

Lecture 6
2
4.1. Electric current:
 To define current , suppose that charges
are moving perpendicular to a surface of
area A as shown in (Fig. 4-1) . This area
could be the cross-sectional area of a wire:
 The current is the rate at which charge
flows through this surface.
I = d Q/d t

Lecture 6
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4.1. Electric current:

(Fig. 4-1)

Lecture 6
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4.1. Electric current:
 Ampere(A):
It is the unit of current 1 A = 1C/1s
 (1A) of current is equivalent to (1 C) of charge
passing through the surface area in ( 1 s) .
 The charges passing through the surface in the
fig can be positive or negative, or both. It is
conventional to assign to the current the same
direction as the flow of positive charge.
Lecture 6
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4.2. Resistance:
 Current Density :
 Consider a conductor of cross-sectional area (A)
carrying a current ( I ) . The current density( J ) in
the conductor is defind as the current per unit area.
J = I / A= n q vd
where ( J ) has units of A/m2
 A current density ( J ) and an electric field ( E ) are
established in a conductor whenever a potential
difference is maintained across the conductor.

Lecture 6
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4.3.Ohm's Law:

The current density in an Ohmic conductor

is proportional to the electric field
according to the expression:
J=σE
where σ the proportionality constant is
called the conductivity
1/ σ is known as resistance
Lecture 6
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4.3.Ohm's Law:

Resistance :
 The ratio of the potential difference across a
conductor to the current in the conductor:
R = ∆V/I
1Ω = 1V/1A
 If a potential difference of (1V) across a
conductor causes a current of (1A) , the
resistance of the conductor is (1 Ω)
Lecture 6
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4.3.Ohm's Law:

 Resistivity: The inverse of conductivity

:
 = 1/ σ
where has the units ohm-meters (Ω . m)
 Resistance is a property of an object
while Resistivity is property of a
substance.
Lecture 6
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4.4. Dierct Current Circuits:
 Most of the circuits analyzed are assumed
to be in steady state, which means that
currents in the circuit are constant in
magnitude and direction.
 A current that is constant in direction is
called a direct current (DC), but
alternating current in which the current
changes in direction periodically .
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4.5.Electromotive Force :
 We will use a battery in our discussion and in
our circuit diagrams as a source of energy for
the circuit as in (Fig. 4-2)
 Because the potential difference at the battery
terminal is constant in a particular circuit, the
current in the circuit is constant in magnitude
and direction and called direct current .
 The emf (ε) of a battery is the maximum
possible voltage that the battera can provide
between its terminal.

Lecture 6
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4.5. Electromotive Force :

(Fig. 4 - 2)
Lecture 6
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4.5. Electromotive Force :
 The (emf) of a battery is equal to the
voltage across its terminals when the
current is zero. That is , the (emf) is
equivalent to the open- circuit voltage of
the battery. As shown in (Fig. 4-3) the
equivalent resistance of a set of resistors
connected in series is:
Req = R1+R2+R3+……
Lecture 6
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4.5. Electromotive Force :

(Fig. 4-3)

Lecture 6
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4.4. Electromotive Force :

 The equivalent resistance of a set of

resistors connected in parallel is found
from the relationship and as shown in
(Fig. 4-4)
1/Req=1/R1+1/R2+1/R3+…..

Lecture 6
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4.4. Electromotive Force :

(Fig. 4-4)
Lecture 6
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4.6. Kirchhoff's Rules :
a. Junction rule :
The sum of the currents entering any
junction in a circuit must equal the sum
of the currents leaving that junction:
ΣIin = Σ Iout

Lecture 6
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4.6. Kirchhoff's Rules :
b. Loop rule:
The sum of the potential differences
across all elements around any closed
circuit loop must be zero:

Σ ∆V = 0

Lecture 6
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4.7. Magnetic Fields :
 4.7.1. Magnetic Fields and Forces :
 The directions of a needle near a spherical
natural magnet formed lines that encircled the
sphere and passed through two points opposite
each other, which called the poles of the
magnet.
 Subsequent experiments showed that every
magnet, has two poles called North (N) and
South (S) poles. Poles (N-N or S-S) repel eash
other, and opposite poles (N-S) attract each
other.
Lecture 6
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4.7.1. Magnetic Fields and Forces :

 Although the force between two magnetic poles is

otherwise similar to the force between two electric
charges, electric charges can be isolated ( witness the
electron and proton) whereas, a single magnetic pole
has never been isolated. That is , magnetic poles are
always found in pairs.
 The sympol (B) is a magnetic field and its direction at
any location is the direction in which a compass
needle points at that location. As with the electric
field, we can represent the magnetic field by means of
drawing with magnetic field lines.

Lecture 6
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4.7.1. Magnetic Fields and Forces :

 The magnetic field lines of a bar magnet can be

traced with the aid of a compass. The magnetic
field lines outside the magnet point away from
north poles and toward south poles. One can
display magnetic field patterns of a bar magnet
using small iron filings, as shown in (Fig. 4-5).
 We can define a magnetic field (B) at some
point in space in terms of the magnetic force
(FB) that the field exerts on a charged particle
moving with a velocity(V). Experiments on
various charged particles moving in a magnetic
field give the following results:
Lecture 6
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4.6.1. Magnetic Fields and Forces :

 1.The magnitude (Fb )of the magnetic force is

proportional to the charge (q )and the velocity
(v).
 2. The magnitude and direction of (FB) depend
on the velocity of the particle and on the
magnitude and direction of the magnetic field
(B) .
 3. When a charge particle moves parallel to the
magnetic field ,magnetic force acting on the
particle is zero.

Lecture 6
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4.6.1. Magnetic Fields and Forces :

 4. When (v) make any angle (Ө ≠ 0) with (B ,

FB) acts in a direction perpendicular to both (v
and B) (Fig. 4-5a). FB exerted on a positive
charge is in the direction opposite the direction
of the FB exerted on a negative charge moving
in the same direction .
 5. The magnitude of (FB) exerted on the
moving particle is proportional to (sin Ө).
where (Ө) is the angle the particle's
velocity makes with the direction of (B)
FB = qv × B
Lecture 6
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4.6.1. Magnetic Fields and Forces :

 6. The direction of this force is

perpendicular both to (v and B) . The
magnitude of this force is :

FB = | q | vB sin Ө

Lecture 6
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4.6.1. Magnetic Fields and Forces :

(Fig. 4-5)

Lecture 6
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4.6.1. Magnetic Fields and Forces :

There are several difference between electric and

magnetic forces:
 1. The electric force acts along the direction of
the electric field, whereas the magnetic force
acts perpendicular to the magnetic field.
 2. The electric force acts on a charged particle
regardless of whether the particle is moving,
whereas the magnetic force acts on a charged
particle only when the partice is in motion.
Lecture 6
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4.6.1. Magnetic Fields and Forces :
 3. The electric force does work in displacing a
charged particle, whereas the magnetic force
associated with a steady magnetic field does no work
when a particle is displaced because the force is
perpendicular to the displacement.
 4.The unit of magnetic field is the Newton per
coulomb- meter per second, which is called the
Tesla (T)
1T = 1 N / C. m / s
 Because a coulomb per second is defined to be an
ampere, we see that :
1T = 1 N/A .m Lecture 6
27
4.6.2. Magnetic Force Acting on a Current- Carrying
Conductor :

 One can demonstrate the magnetic force acting on a

current-carrying conductor by hanging a wire
between the poles of a magnet , shown in (Fig 4-6).
 For ease in visualization, part of the horseshoe
magnet in part (a) is removed to show the end face of
the south pole in parts (b), and (d) of (Fig. 4-6).
 The magnetic field is directed into the page and
covers the region within the shaded squares. When
the current in the wire is zero, the wire remains
vertical, as shown in (Fig. 4-6b).
Lecture 6
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4.6.2. Magnetic Force Acting on a Current- Carrying
Conductor :

 However, when the wire carries a current directed

upward, as shown in (Fig .4-6c), the wire deflects to
the left. If we reverse the current, as shown in (Fig .4-
6d), the wire deflects to the right.
 If a straight conductor of length (L) carries a current
(I) , the force exerted on that conductor when it is
placed in a uniform magnetic field (B) is :
FB = IL × B
where the direction of (L) is in the direction of the
current and | L | = L
Lecture 6
29
4.6.2. Magnetic Force Acting on a Current- Carrying
Conductor :

 From this we conclude that (FB) on a

curved current-carrying wire in a uniform
magnetic field is equal to that on a
straight wire connecting the end points
and carrying the same current.

Lecture 6
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4.6.2. Magnetic Force Acting on a Current- Carrying
Conductor :

(Fig. 4-6)

Lecture 6
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4.6.3. Motion of a Charged Particle in a Uniform
Magnetic Field :
 The magnetic force acting on a charged
particle moving in a magnetic field is
perpendicular to the velocity of the particle
and that consequently the work done by the
magnetic force on the particle is zero.
 Consider the spherical case of a positively
charged particle moving in a uniform magnetic
field with the initial velocity vector of the
particle perpendicular to the field.
Lecture 6
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4.6.3. Motion of a Charged Particle in a Uniform
Magnetic Field :

 Assume that the direction of the magnetic field

is into the page, as in (Fig. 4-6) . As the
particle changes the direction of its velocity in
response to the magnetic force, the magnetic
force remains perpendicular to the velocity,
the path of the particle is a circle (Fig. 4-6)
shows the particle moving in a circle in a plane
perpendicular to the magnetic field.
r = m υ /q B
Lecture 6
33
4.6.3. Motion of a Charged Particle in a Uniform
Magnetic Field :

 That is the radius of the path is

proportional to the linear momentum mv
of the particle and inversely proportional
to the magnitude of the charge on the
particle and to the magnitude of the
magnetic field. The angular speed of the
particle is :
ω = υ /r = q B / m
Lecture 6
34
4.6.3. Motion of a Charged Particle in a Uniform
Magnetic Field :

 The period of the motion (the time

interval the particle requires to complete
one revolution) is equal to the
circumference of the circle divided by the
linear speed of the particle:
T = 2 π r/υ = 2 π / ω = 2 π m / q B

Lecture 6
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4.7.3. Motion of a Charged Particle in a Uniform
Magnetic Field :

(Fig. 4-7)

Lecture 6
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4.7.4. Applications Involving Charged Particles
Moving in Magnetic Field :

 A charge moving with a velocity v in the

presence of both an electric field E and a
magnetic field (B) experiences both an
electric force (q E) and a magnetic force
qv×B.
 The total force ( Lorentz force) acting on
the charge is :
F=qE+qv×B
Lecture 6
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4.7.4. Applications Involving Charged Particles
Moving in Magnetic Field :

 4.7.4. Velocity selector :

 It is important that the particles all move with
essentially the same velocity. This can be achieved by
applying a combination of an electric field and a
magnetic field oriented as shown in (Fig. 4-8).
 A uniform electric field is directed vertically
downward (in the plane of the page in Fig. 4-8a), and a
uniform magnetic field is applied in the direction
perpendicular to the electric field (into the Fig 4-8a)
from the expression qE = q υ × B, we find that:
υ = E/B Lecture 6
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4.7.4. Applications Involving Charged Particles
Moving in Magnetic Field :

(Fig 4-7)

Lecture 6
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4.8. Sources of the magnetic Fields :

 4.8.1.The pattern of magnetic field :

The pattern of magnetic field lines for a
circular current loop is shown in (Fig. 4-9a) .
For clarity, the lines are drawn for only one
plane – one that contains the axis of the loop.
Note that the field – line pattern is axially
symmetric and looks like the pattern around a
bar magnet, shown (Fig 4-9c).

Lecture 6
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4.8. Sources of the magnetic Fields :

(Fig. 4-9)

Lecture 6
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4.8.2. The magnetic Force Between Two Parallel
Conductors :

 Consider two long, straight, parallel wires

separated by a distance a and carrying
currents(I1 and I2) in the same direction,
as shown in (Fig .4-10).
 We can determine the force exerted on
one wire due to the magnetic field set up
by the other wire.

Lecture 6
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4.8.2. The magnetic Force Between Two Parallel
Conductors :

 B2 is the magnetic field of wire 2 and B1 is

the magnetic field of wire 1.
 The magnetic force on a length l of wire 1 is
F1 = I1ℓ × B2
F1 = I1ℓ B2 = I1ℓ ( µ0 I2/2πa) = µ0 I1I2/2πaℓ
 Parallel conductors carrying currents in the
same direction attract each other, and parallel
conductors carrying currents in opposite
directions replel each other.
FB/l= µ0 I1I2/2πa Lecture 6
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4.8.2. The magnetic Force Between Two Parallel
Conductors :

(Fig. 4-10)

Lecture 6
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4.8.3. The force between two parallel wires is used to
define the ampere as follows:

 a. Ampere:
 When the magnitude of the force per unit
length between two long parallel wires
that carry identical currents and are
separated by 1 m is s×10-7 N/m, the
current in each wire is defined to be 1 A.

Lecture 6
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4.8.3. The force between two parallel wires is used to
define ampere as follows:

 b. Coulomb:
 When a conductor carries a steady current
of 1A, the quantity of charge that flows
through a cross section of the conductor
in s is 1 C.

Lecture 6
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4.8.4. Ampere's Law :

 Discovery about deflected compass needles

demonstrates that a current-carrying conductor
produces a magnetic field as shown in (Fig. 4-
11) .
 Several compass needles are placed in a
horizontal plane near a long vertical wire.
 When no current is present in the wire, all the
needles point in the same direction ( that of the
earth's magnetic field).
Lecture 6
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4.8.4. Ampere's Law :

 When the wire carries a strong, steady current,

the needles all deflect in a direction tangent to
the circle, as in (Fig 4-11a).
 The direction of the magnetic field produced
by the current in the wire is consistent with the
right-hand rule. When the current is reversed,
the needles in (Fig 4-11b) also reverse.
ƒ B.ds = µ0 I

Lecture 6
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4.8.4. Ampere's Law :

(Fig. 4 -11)
Lecture 6
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4.9. Faraday's Law :
 4.9.1. Faraday's Law of Induction :
 When a magnet is moved toward the
loop, the galvanometer needle deflects in
one direction, shown to the right in (Fig.
4-12a).
 When the magnet is brought to rest and
held stationary relative to the loop as
shown in (Fig. 4-12b), no deflection is
observed.
Lecture 6
50
4.9. Faraday's Law :

 When the magnet is moved away from

the loop, the needle deflects in the
opposite direction, as shown in (Fig. 4-
12c).
Finally, if the magnet is held stationary and
the loop is moved either toward or away
from it, the needle deflect.

Lecture 6
51
4.9. Faraday's Law :

 We conclude that the loop detects that the

magnet is moving relative to it and we relate
this detection to a change in magnetic field.
Thus, it seems that a relationship exits between
current and changing magnetic field
 The (emf) induced in a circuit is directly
proportional to the time rate of change of the
magnetic flux through the circuit.
ε = - d ф B /d t
Lecture 6
52
4.9. Faraday's Law :

(Fig. 4-12) Lecture 6

53
4.9.2. Lenz's Law :

 From Faraday's law, this has a very real

physical interpretation that has come to
be known as Lenz's Law:
 The induced current in a loop is in the
direction that creates a magnetic field
that opposes the change in magnetic flux
through the enclosed by the loop.

Lecture 6
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4.10. Electromagnetic Waves :

 properties of electromagnetic waves :

 The solutions of maxwell's third and
fourth equations are wave-like, with both
E and B satisfying a wave equation.
 Electromagnetic waves travel through
empty space at the speed of light
c = 1/ ε0µ0

Lecture 6
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4.10. Electromagnetic Waves :

 The components of the electric and magnetic

fields of plane electromagnetic waves are
perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to
the direction of wave propagation.
 We can summarize the latter property by saying
that electromagnetic waves are transverse waves.
 The magnitudes of E and B in empty space are
related by the expression E/B=c.
 Electromagnetic waves obey the principle of
superposition.

Lecture 6
56