Digital Signal Processing

Book: Digital Signal Processing

Principles, Algorithms and
Applications
By JOHN G. PROAKIS

1
     No. Of Lectures.
Sr.# Topic

1.   Introduction to DSP, Review of Discrete Signals & Systems, and their representation 1

1.   Analog to Digital Conversion (Review of Sampling Theorem and Aliasing), Quantization 1

Distortion

1.   Discrete-time Convolution 1
1.   Cross Correlation and Auto-correlation 1
1.   The z-transform, Inverse Z-transform 2
1.   Z-transform solution of Difference Equation 2
1.   Discrete Fourier Transform 2
1.   Fast Fourier Transform (Radix-2) 2
1.   Fast Fourier Transform (DIT) 2
1.   Fast Fourier Transform (DIF) 2
1.   Class Test 1, Digital Filter Design: Introduction 2
1.   Design of FIR Filters: Windows Method 2
1.   Choice of Window in the Digital Filter Design 2
1.   Frequency sampling 2
1.   Comparison of FIR filter Design methods, Class Test 2 2
1.   Design of IIR Filters: Pole Zero Placement Method 2
1.   Approximation of Derivatives 2
1.   Impulse Invariance Method 2
1.   Bilinear Transformation 2
1.   Matched Z-transformation 2
1.   Filter Realizations, Class Test 3 2
1.   Multirate DSP, Decimation, interpolation 2
1.   Langrage’s algorithm, sampling rate conversion by a rational factor 2
2
  Total Lectures: 42
Lecture 1-2

Basic Concepts

3
• Signal:
A signal is defined as a function of one or more variables
which conveys information on the nature of a physical
phenomenon. The value of the function can be a real
valued scalar quantity, a complex valued quantity, or
perhaps a vector.

• System:
A system is defined as an entity that manipulates one or
more signals to accomplish a function, thereby yielding
new signals.

4
• Continuos-Time Signal:
A signal x(t) is said to be a continuous time signal if it is
defined for all time t.

• Discrete-Time Signal:
A discrete time signal x[nT] has values specified only at
discrete points in time.
• Signal Processing:
A system characterized by the type of operation that it
performs on the signal. For example, if the operation is
linear, the system is called linear. If the operation is non-
linear, the system is said to be non-linear, and so forth.
Such operations are usually referred to as “Signal
Processing”.
5
 Basic Elements of a Signal Processing
System
Analog input Analog output
signal Analog signal
Signal Processor

Analog Signal Processing

Analog Analog
input output
signal A/D Digital D/A signal
converter Signal Processor converter

Digital Signal Processing

6
• Advantages of Digital over Analogue Signal
Processing:
-A digital programmable system allows flexibility in
reconfiguring the DSP operations simply by changing the
program. Reconfiguration of an analogue system usually
implies a redesign of hardware, testing and verification
that it operates properly.

-DSP provides better control of accuracy requirements.

(can be adjusted by adjusting word length, floating point
number).
For analog tolerance of components limits the accuracy.

-Digital signals are easily stored on magnetic media (tape

or disk). 7
-The DSP allows for the implementation of more
sophisticated signal processing algorithms.

Algorithm:
The method or set of rules for implementing the system
by a program that performs the corresponding
mathematical operations is called an algorithm.
(In analog domain it is difficult to perform mathematical
operations but easy to perform on digital computers.)

- In some cases a digital implementation of the signal

processing system is cheaper than its analogue
counterpart.

8
 DSP Applications
Space photograph enhancement
Space Data compression
Intelligent sensory analysis
Diagnostic imaging (MRI, CT,
Medical ultrasound, etc.)
Electrocardiogram analysis
Medical image storage and retrieval

Image and sound compression for

Commercial multimedia presentation.
Movie special effects
Video conference calling

Video and data compression

Telephone echo reduction
signal multiplexing
filtering
9
DSP Applications (cont.)
Radar
Sonar
Military Ordnance Guidance
Secure communication
Oil and mineral prospecting
Industrial Process monitoring and control
Non-destructive testing
CAD and design tools

Earth quick recording and analysis

Data acquisition
Scientific Spectral Analysis
Simulation and Modeling

10
 Classification of Signals

•Deterministic Signals
A deterministic signal behaves in a fixed known way with
respect to time. Thus, it can be modeled by a known
function of time t for continuous time signals, or a known
function of a sampler number n, and sampling spacing T
for discrete time signals.

• Random or Stochastic Signals:

In many practical situations, there are signals that either
cannot be described to any reasonable degree of accuracy
by explicit mathematical formulas, or such a description
is too complicated to be of any practical use. The lack of
such a relationship implies that such signals evolve in time
in an unpredictable manner. We refer to these signals as
random. 11
 Even and Odd Signals
A discrete time signal x[n] is said to an even signal if it
satisfies the condition
x[-n] = x[n] for all n
The signal x[n] is said to be an odd signal if it satisfies the
condition
x[-n] = -x[n]
In other words, even signals are symmetric about the
vertical axis or time origin, whereas odd signals are
antisymmetric about the time origin.

Example:

even 12
odd odd
Tutorial 1: Q1

1
x e [n ]   x n   x  n  
2
1
x 0 [n ]   x[ n ]  x[  n ]
2

Where xe[n] is even part and xo[n] is odd part

13
 Periodic Signals
A continuous signal x(t) is periodic if and only if there
exists a T > 0 such that
x(t + T) = x(t)
where T is the period of the signal in units of time.
f = 1/T is the frequency of the signal in Hz. W = 2/T is
the angular frequency in radians per second.
The discrete time signal x[nT] is periodic if and only if
there exists an N > 0 such that
x[nT + N] = x[nT]
where N is the period of the signal in number of sample
spacings.

Example:

Frequency = 5 Hz or 10 rad/s

0 0.2 0.4 14
Continuous Time Sinusoidal Signals
A simple harmonic oscillation is mathematically
described as
x(t) = Acos(wt + ) (continuous in defined interval)
This signal is completely characterized by three
parameters:
A = amplitude, w = 2f = frequency in rad/s, and  =
phase in radians.

A T=1/f

15
 Discrete Time Sinusoidal Signals
A discrete time sinusoidal signal may be expressed as
x[n] = Acos(wn + ) - < n < 
Properties:
• A discrete time sinusoid is periodic only if its frequency is a
rational number.
• Discrete time sinusoids whose frequencies are separated by
an integer multiple of 2 are identical.
• The highest rate of oscillation in a discrete time sinusoid is
attained when w =  ( or w = - ), or equivalently f = 1/2 (or f =
-1/2).
1

-1
0 2 4 6 8 10 16
- For discrete time signal x[n], instants need not be equidistant.

- When instants are equidistance then x[nT].

- Discrete signals arise in two ways:

- Taking values of analog signal at discrete instants
(sampling).
e.g: measuring instruments that measure at regular intervals
of time.
- Accumulating a variable over a period of time.
e.g: counting a number of cars in a given street every hour. Or
recording value of a gold every day.

17
Continuous valued and discrete valued signals
• C.T and D.T signals can be continuous valued or discrete valued signals.
• If signal takes on all possible values in finite interval or infinite interval
it is continuous valued.
• If a signal takes a set of values from a finite set of values is discrete
valued signal.

• A discrete time signal with discrete values is called a digital signal. For
digital processing, signal must be discrete in time and values.

• When signal is analog (C.T & C.V), we convert it into digital by taking
its samples at discrete instants, getting (D.T & C.V) signal, then by
quantizing its values to a set of discrete values (converting C.V signal
into D.V).

18
 Energy and Power Signals
•A signal is referred to as an energy signal, if and only if
the total energy of the signal satisfies the condition
0<E<
•On the other hand, it is referred to as a power signal, if
and only if the average power of the signal satisfies the
condition
0<P<
•An energy signal has zero average power, whereas a power
signal has infinite energy.
•Periodic signals and random signals are usually viewed as
power signals, whereas signals that are both deterministic and
non-periodic are energy signals.

19
Energy and Power Signals


E dx  T  x 2  n 
n  

2
 1  N
Pdx  lim    x nT
N    2N  1  n   N 20
 Example1:
Compute the signal energy and signal power for
x[nT] = (-0.5)nu(nT), T = 0.01 seconds

Solution:
N 2  2
E dx  lim T  x nT   0.01    0.5 
n
N  nN n0

 2n 
 0.01    0.5   0.01  0.25 n
n0 n0


 0.01 1  0.25   0.25    0.25   .......
2 3

0.01
  1 / 75
1  0.25

Since Edx is finite, the signal power is zero.

21
 Example2:
Repeat Example1 for y[nT] = 2ej3nu[nT], T = 0.2 second.

Solution:
2
 1  N  1 N 2
  y (nT)  lim    2e
j3 n
Pdx  lim 
N    2N  1  n   N N    2N  1  n  0

 1 N 2 4 N 4( N  1)
 lim    2  lim  1  lim
N   2N  1 n  0 N   2N  1 n  0 N   2N  1

 N 1  1
 lim 4    4  2
N    2N  1 2N  1  2

What is energy of this signal?

22
 Tutorial 1: Q2
Determine the signal energy and signal power for each of the given signals and indicate whether it is an energy signal or a power signal?

(a) y[nT]  3( 0.2)n u[n  3], T = 2 ms

(b) z[nT]  4 1.1 n u[n  1] T = 0.02 s

23
 Basic Operations on Signals
(a) Operations performed on dependent
variables
1. Amplitude Scaling:
let x[n] denote a discrete time signal. The signal y[n]
resulting from amplitude scaling applied to x[n] is
defined by
y[n] = cx[n]
where c is the scale factor. 2x[n]

x[n]

24
 2. Addition:
Let x1 [n] and x2[n] denote a pair of discrete time signals. The signal y[n] obtained by the addition of
x1[n] + x2[n] is defined as
y[n] = x1[n] + x2[n]
Example: audio mixer

3. Multiplication:
Let x1[n] and x2[n] denote a pair of discrete-time signals.
The signal y[n] resulting from the multiplication of the
x1[n] and x2[n] is defined by
y[n] = x1[n].x2[n]
Example: AM Radio Signal

25
(b) Operations performed on independent
variable
• Time Scaling:
Let y[n] is a compressed version of x[n]. The signal y[n]
obtained by scaling the independent variable, time n,
by a factor k is defined by
y[n] = x[kn] = x[nT/b]. Where k=(1/b)

When b>1 compression

When b <1 expansion.

26
Time scaling of discrete time systems

10
x[n]

5
0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
10
x[0.5n]

5
0
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
5
x[2n]

0
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
n 27
Time Reversal

• This operation reflects the signal about t = 0

and thus reverses the signal on the time scale.
x[n] x[-n]
6 6

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

00 1 2 3 4 5 0-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
28
 Time Shift
A signal may be shifted in time by replacing the independent variable n by n-k,
where k is an integer. If k is a positive integer, the time shift results in a delay
of the signal by k units of time. If k is a negative integer, the time shift results in
an advance of the signal by |k| units in time.

29
 1
x[n]

0.5

0
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
1
x[n+3]

0.5

0
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
1
x[n-3]

0.5

0
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10

30