Internal Combustion Engine: Teknik Mesin Universitas Maarif Hasyim Latf Sidoarjo

Internal Combustion Engine

Dr. Dony Perdana, ST, MT
TEKNIK MESIN
UNIVERSITAS MAARIF HASYIM LATF
SIDOARJO
1
Contents
1-Introduction (History, Engine classification, Engine component

and Engine emissions)
2-Operating Characteristics (Engine parameters, Torque, Power,
pressure, Efficiency, Volumetric efficiency)
3-Engine cycles (Otto cycle, SI cycle, Diesel cycle, Dual cycle, CI
cycle)
4-Thermochemistry and Fuels (Hydrocarbon Fuels-Gasoline,
Self-Ignition and Octane Number, Diesel Fuel)
5-Air and Fuel induction (Fuel Injectors, Carburetors,
Supercharging and Turbocharging)
6-Emission and air pollutions (Co2 , Co, Nox and solid particles)
2
References:
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals
By John B. Heywood
McGraw-Hill Higher Education 1988

Engineering Fundamentals of the Internal Combustion Engine
by Willard W.Pulkrabek
Prentice Hall, 1st edition,1997.
An Introduction to Combustion : Concepts and Applications w/IBM3.5’ Disk

by Stephen R. Turns
McGraw-Hill Higher Education , Bk & Disk edition,1995

3
INTRODUCTION
4
INTRODUCTION
The internal combustion engine is a heat engine that converts

chemical energy in a fuel into mechanical energy
Chemical
Heat
Mechanical
This thermal energy raises the temperature and pressure of the gases
within the engine, and the high-pressure gas then expands against the
mechanical mechanisms of the engine. This expansion is converted by the
mechanical linkages of the engine to a rotating crankshaft, which is the
output of the engine.
5
Internal combustion engines are reciprocating engines having pistons

that reciprocate back and forth in cylinders internally within the engine.
Engine types not covered by this course include steam engines and gas
turbine engines, which are better classified as external combustion
engines (i.e., combustion takes place outside the mechanical engine
system)
6
Historical Development of the I.C. Engine
• 1862 -- Rochas described the basic principles essential for

efficient engine operation.
• 1878 – Otto built the first successful 4-stroke cycle engine.
• 1891 – Day built an improved 2-stroke cycle engine.
• 1892 – Diesel patented the compression-ignition (diesel)
engine.
• To present – emphasis on improved engine efficiency,
through refinement.
• You
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ENGINE CLASSIFICATIONS
8
ENGINE CLASSIFICATIONS
Internal combustion engines can be classified in a number of different
ways:
1. Types of Ignition
(a) Spark Ignition (SI). An SI engine starts the combustion process in each cycle
by use of a spark plug. The spark plug gives a high-voltage electrical discharge
between two electrodes which ignites the air-fuel mixture in the combustion
chamber surrounding the plug.
(b) Compression Ignition (CI). The combustion process in a CI engine starts
when the air-fuel mixture self-ignites due to high temperature in the combustion
chamber caused by high compression.
2. Engine Cycle
(a) Four-Stroke Cycle. A four-stroke cycle experiences four piston movements
over two engine revolutions for each cycle.
(b) Two-Stroke Cycle. A two-stroke cycle has two piston movements over one
revolution for each cycle.
9
Four-Stroke Cycle C.I. Engine
10
Two-Stroke Cycle Engines
11
Comparison of Two-Stroke
vs. Four-Stroke Cycle Engines
12
3. Valve Location
(a) Valves in head (overhead valve), also called I Head engine.
(b) Valves in block (flat head), also called L Head engine. Some historic
engines with valves in block had the intake valve on one side of the cylinder and
the exhaust valve on the other side. These were called T Head engines.
L Head engine I Head engine F Head engine T Head engine

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4. Basic Design
(a) Reciprocating. Engine has one or more cylinders in which pistons reciprocate
back and forth. The combustion chamber is located in the closed end of each
cylinder. Power is delivered to a rotating output crankshaft by mechanical linkage
with the pistons.
(b) Rotary. Engine is made of a block (stator) built around a large non-concentric
rotor and crankshaft. The combustion chambers are built into the non-rotating block.
5. Position and Number of Cylinders
(a) Single Cylinder. (d) Opposed Cylinder Engine. (g) Radial Engine.
(b) In-Line. (e) W Engine.
(c) V Engine. (f) Opposed Piston Engine.
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6. Air Intake Process
(a) Naturally Aspirated. No intake air pressure boost system.

(b) Supercharged. Intake air pressure increased with the compressor driven
off of the engine crankshaft (Fig. 1-8).
(c) Turbocharged. Intake air pressure increased with the turbine-compressor
driven by the engine exhaust gases (Fig. 1-9).
(d) Crankcase Compressed. Two-stroke cycle engine which uses the crankcase
as the intake air compressor. Limited development work has also been done on
design and construction of four-stroke cycle engines with crankcase compression.
7. Method of Fuel Input for SI Engines

(a) Carbureted.
(b) Multipoint Port Fuel Injection. One or more injectors at each cylinder intake.
(c) Throttle Body Fuel Injection. Injectors upstream in intake manifold.
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8. Fuel Used
(a) Gasoline.
(b) Diesel Oil or Fuel Oil.
(c) Gas, Natural Gas, Methane.
(d) LPG.
(e) Alcohol-Ethyl, Methyl.
(f) Dual Fuel. There are a number of engines that use a combination of two or
more fuels. Some, usually large, CI engines use a combination of methane and
diesel fuel. These are attractive in developing third-world countries because of
the high cost of diesel fuel. Combined gasoline-alcohol fuels are becoming more
common as an alternative to straight gasoline automobile engine fuel.
(g) Gasohol. Common fuel consisting of 90% gasoline and 10% alcohol.
9. Application
(a) Automobile, Truck, Bus.
(b) Locomotive.
(c) Stationary.
(d) Marine.
(e) Aircraft.
(f) Small Portable, Chain Saw, Model Airplane. 17
1O. Type of Cooling
(a) Air Cooled.
(b) Liquid Cooled, Water Cooled.
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ENGINE COMPONENTS
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Name of Engine Parts
Valve cover Rocker arm

Valve spring
Valve Push rod
Piston Piston pin

Valve tappet
Connecting rod
Camshaft
Engine block
Connecting rod
Main journal
Connecting rod cap
Oil pan 20
Cylinder Block
“Backbone” of the engine.

Supports / aligns most other
components.
Part of basic tractor frame.
Contains:
Cylinders
Coolant passages
Oil passages
Bearings
One-piece, gray cast iron
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22.03.21
Cylinders
• Cylindrical holes in which the

pistons reciprocate.
• May be:
– Enblock
– Liners
• Wet liners
• Dry liners
• Cylinder bore – diameter of
cylinder
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Cylinder Head
Seals the “top-end” of the

combustion chamber.
Contains the valves and the intake
and exhaust “ports”.
Head bolts and head gasket ensure
air-tight seal of the combustion
chamber.
Contains oil and coolant passages.
One-piece castings of iron alloy.
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Valve Train
• Controls flow into and out of the

combustion chamber.
– Time and Duration
• Tractor engines use “Overhead
Valve (OHV)” configuration.
• Components
– Camshaft
– Valve tappets
– Push rods
– Rocker arm
– Valves
– Valve springs
– Valve rotators
– Valve seats
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Camgshaft
Open the intake and exhaust valves at correct time and for correct
duration.
Driven by gear (or chain) from the crankshaft.
2:1 crankshaft to camshaft gear ratio.
L ift
N ose
B a s e c ir c le
C a m P r o file
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Piston and Rings
• Piston
– Forms the “moveable
bottom’ of the
combustion chamber.
• Iron alloy or
aluminum
• Rings
– Compression
– Oil-control
• Cast iron
• Piston pin
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Connecting rod
• Connects the piston to the

crankshaft
• Converts reciprocating
piston motion to rotary
motion at the crankshaft.
• Nomenclature
• Drop-forged steel
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Crankshaft
Works with connecting rod to change reciprocating to rotary motion.

Transmits mechanical energy from the engine.
Made of heat-treated steel alloys.
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TERMINOLOGY AND ABBREVIATIONS
29
TERMINOLOGY AND ABBREVIATIONS
The following terms and abbreviations are commonly used in engine technology
 Internal Combustion (IC)
 Spark Ignition (SI) An engine in which the combustion process in each cycle
is started by use of a spark plug.
 Compression Ignition (CI) An engine in which the combustion process starts
when the air-fuel mixture self-ignites due to high temperature in the combustion
chamber caused by high compression.
 Top-Dead-Center (TDC) Position of the piston when it stops at the furthest point
away from the crankshaft.
 Bottom-Dead-Center (BDC) Position of the piston when it stops at the point
closest to the crankshaft.
 Direct Injection (DI) Fuel injection into the main combustion chamber of an engine.
 Indirect Injection (IDI) Fuel injection into the secondary chamber of an
engine with a divided combustion chamber.
 Bore Diameter of the cylinder or diameter of the piston face, which is the same
minus a very small clearance.
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 Stroke Movement distance of the piston from one extreme position to the other:
TDC to BDC or BDC to TDC.
 Clearance Volume Minimum volume in the combustion chamber with piston at
TDC.
 Displacement or Displacement Volume Volume displaced by the piston as it
travels through one stroke.
 Smart Engine Engine with computer controls that regulate operating

characteristics
such as air-fuel ratio, ignition timing, valve timing, exhaust control, intake
tuning, etc.
 Air-Fuel Ratio (AF) Ratio of mass of air to mass of fuel input into engine.
 Fuel-Air Ratio (FA) Ratio of mass of fuel to mass of air input into engine.
 Ignition Delay (ID) Time interval between ignition initiation and the actual
start of Combustion
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BASIC ENGINE CYCLES
Most internal combustion engines, both spark ignition and compression ignition,
operate on either a four-stroke cycle or a two-stroke cycle.
A- Four-Stroke SI Engine Cycle
1. First Stroke: Intake Stroke or Induction The piston travels from TDC to BDC with the
intake valve open and exhaust valve closed. This creates an increasing volume in the
combustion chamber, which in turn creates a vacuum.
2. Second Stroke: Compression Stroke When the piston reaches BDC, the intake valve closes
and the piston travels back to TDC with all valves closed. This compresses the air-fuel
mixture, raising both the pressure and temperature in the cylinder.
3. Combustion: Combustion of the air-fuel mixture occurs in a very short but finite length
of time with the piston near TDC (i.e., nearly constant-volume combustion).
4. Third Stroke: Expansion Stroke or Power Stroke With all valves closed, the high pressure
created by the combustion process pushes the piston away from TDC. This is the stroke which
produces the work output of the engine cycle.
5. Exhaust Blowdown Late in the power stroke, the exhaust valve is opened and exhaust
blow down occurs.
6. Fourth Stroke: Exhaust Stroke By the time the piston reaches BDC, exhaust blowdown is
complete, but the cylinder is still full of exhaust gases at approximately atmospheric pressure.
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33
B- Four-Stroke CI Engine Cycle
1. First Stroke: Intake Stroke The same as the intake stroke in an SI engine with
one major difference: no fuel is added to the incoming air.
2. Second Stroke: Compression Stroke The same as in an SI engine except that
only air is compressed and compression is to higher pressures and temperature.
3. Combustion Combustion is fully developed by TDC and continues at about
constant pressure until fuel injection is complete and the piston has started
towards BDC.
4. Third Stroke: Power Stroke The power stroke continues as combustion

ends and the piston travels towards BDC.
5. Exhaust Blowdown Same as with an SI engine.
6. Fourth Stroke: Exhaust Stroke Same as with an SI engine.
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C- Two-Stroke SI Engine Cycle
1. Combustion With the piston at TDC combustion occurs very quickly, raising the
temperature and pressure to peak values, almost at constant volume.
2. First Stroke: Expansion Stroke or Power Stroke Very high pressure created by the
combustion process forces the piston down in the power stroke. The expanding
volume of the combustion chamber causes pressure and temperature to decrease as
the piston travels towards BDC.
3. Exhaust Blowdown At about 75° bBDC, the exhaust valve opens and blowdown
occurs. The exhaust valve may be a poppet valve in the cylinder head, or it may be a
slot in the side of the cylinder which is uncovered as the piston approaches BDC. After
blowdown the cylinder remains filled with exhaust gas at lower pressure.
4. Intake and Scavenging When blowdown is nearly complete, at about 50° bBDC,
the intake slot on the side of the cylinder is uncovered and intake air-fuel enters
under pressure.
5. Second Stroke: Compression Stroke With all valves (or ports) closed, the piston
travels towards TDC and compresses the air-fuel mixture to a higher pressure and
temperature. Near the end of the compression stroke, the spark plug is fired; by the
time the piston gets to IDC, combustion occurs and the next engine cycle begins.
35
36
D- Two-Stroke CI Engine Cycle
The two-stroke cycle for a CI engine is similar to that of the SI engine, except for two
changes.
1- No fuel is added to the incoming air, so that compression is done on air only.
2- Instead of a spark plug, a fuel injector is located in the cylinder. Near the end
of the compression stroke, fuel is injected into the hot compressed air and
combustion is initiated by self-ignition.
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IC Engine Performance
38
Geometric Properties
VC TC 
s  a cos  l 2  a 2 sin 2  
1/ 2
B
Cylinder volume when piston at TC (s=l+a)
L defined as the clearance volume Vc
BC The cylinder volume at any crank angle

is:
B 2
V  Vc  (l  a  s )
l 4
s
Maximum displacement, or swept, volume:
B 2
Vd  L
 4
a Compression ratio:
V V  Vd
rc  BC  c
VTC Vc
For most engines B ~ L (square

engine) 39
Geometric Properties
VC TC

s  a cos  l 2  a 2 sin 2  
1/ 2
B
Average and instantaneous piston velocity are:
L
U p  2 LN
BC ds
Up 
dt
l Where N is the rotational speed of the crank
s
shaft in units revolutions per second
Up   cos 
 sin  1  
 Up 2  
 l / a  2  sin 2  
1/ 2

a
Average piston speed for standard auto
engine is about 15 m/s. Ultimately limited by
material strength. Therefore engines with
large strokes run at lower speeds those with
small strokes run at higher speeds.
40
Piston Velocity vs Crank Angle
R = l/a
41
Torque and Power
Torque is measured off the output shaft using a dynamometer.
b
Stator Force F
Rotor
N
Load cell
The torque exerted by the engine is T:

T  F b units : Nm  J
42
Torque and Power
Torque is measured off the output shaft using a dynamometer.
b
Stator Force F
Rotor
N
Load cell
The torque exerted by the engine is T:

T  F b units : J
The power W delivered by the engine turning at a speed N and

absorbed by the dynamometer is:
 rad  rev 
W    T  (2  N )  T units :   ( J )  Watt
 rev  s 
Note: is the shaft angular velocity in units rad/s 43

Torque is a measure of an engine’s ability to do work and power is

the rate at which work is done
The term brake power, W b, is used to specify that the power is

measured at the output shaft, this is the usable power delivered by
the engine to the load.
The brake power is less than the power generated by the gas in the
cylinders due to mechanical friction and parasitic loads (oil pump, air
conditioner compressor, etc…
The power produced in the cylinder is termed the indicated W i

power, .
44
Indicated Work per Cycle
Given the cylinder pressure data over the operating cycle of the engine one
can calculate the work done by the gas on the piston. This data is
typically given as P vs V
The indicated work per cycle is given by Wi   PdV
WA > 0
WB < 0
Compression Power Exhaust Intake

W<0 W>0 W<0 W>0 45
Work per Cycle
Gross indicated work per cycle – net work delivered to the piston over
the compression and expansion strokes only:
Wi,g =area A + area C (>0)
Pump work – net work delivered to the gas over the intake and exhaust
strokes:
Wp =area B + area C (<0)
Net indicated work per cycle – work delivered over all strokes:
Wi,n = Wi,g – Wp = (area A + area C) – (area B – area C)

= area A – area B
46
Indicated Power
Indicated power:
WN (kJ cycle)(rev s )
W i  i
nR rev cycle
where N – crankshaft speed in rev/s

nR – number of crank revolutions per cycle
= 2 for 4-stroke
= 1 for 2-stroke
Power can be increased by increasing:

• the engine size, Vd
• compression ratio, rc
• engine speed, N
47
Indicated Work at Part Throttle
At WOT the pressure at the intake valve is just below atmospheric pressure,
However at part throttle the pressure is much lower than atmospheric
Pint
Therefore at part throttle the pump work (area B+C) can be significant
compared to gross indicated work (area A+C)
48
Indicated Work with Supercharging
Engines with superchargers or turbochargers can have intake pressures

greater than the exhaust pressure, giving a positive pump work
Pint
Wi,n = area A + area B
Supercharges increase the net indicated work but is a parasitic load

since they are driven by the crankshaft
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Mechanical Efficiency
Some of the power generated in the cylinder is used to overcome engine
friction and to pump gas into and out of the engine.
The term friction power,W f , is used to collectively describe these power losses,
such that:
W f  W i , g  W b
Friction power can be measured by motoring the engine.
The mechanical efficiency is defined as:
W b W f
m   1

Wi , g W i , g
50
Mechanical Efficiency (2)
• Mechanical efficiency depends on throttle position, engine design

and engine speed.
• Typical values for car engines at WOT are:

90% @2000 RPM and 75% @ max speed.
• Throttling increases pumping work and thus decreases the brake power
so the mechanical efficiency drops and approaches zero at idle.
• Power varies with speed but torque is “independent” of engine speed
recall W  N  Wcycle and W  N  T so T  Wcycle
51
Power and Torque versus Engine Speed
W  N  Wcycle T  Wcycle
Rated brake power

There is a maximum in the brake power
versus engine speed called the rated
1 kW = 1.341 hp brake power (RBP).
At higher speeds brake power decreases as
friction power becomes significant compared
to the indicated power W b  W i , g  W f
Max brake torque There is a maximum in the torque versus

speed called maximum brake torque (MBT).
Brake torque drops off:
• at lower speeds do to heat losses
• at higher speeds it becomes more difficult to
ingest a full charge of air.
52
Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (IMEP)

imep is a fictitious constant pressure that would produce the same
work per cycle if it acted on the piston during the power stroke.
Wi W i  nR imep  Vd  N imep  Ap  U p
imep    Wi 
 
Vd Vd  N nR 2  nR
imep does not depend on engine speed, just like torque
recall T  Wcycle so imep  T
imep is a better parameter than torque to compare engines for design and
output because it is independent of engine speed, N, and engine size, Vd.
Brake mean effective pressure (bmep) is defined as:
Wb 2  T  nR bmep  Vd
bmep    T
Vd Vd 2  nR
53
The maximum bmep of good engine designs is well established:
Four stroke engines:
SI engines: 850-1050 kPa*

CI engines: 700 -900 kPa
Turbocharged SI engines: 1250 -1700 kPa

Turbocharged CI engines: 1000 - 1200 kPa
Two stroke engines:
Standard CI engines comparable bmep to four stroke

Large slow CI engines: 1600 kPa
*Values are at maximum brake torque at WOT

Note, at the rated (maximum) brake power the bmep is 10 - 15% less
Can use above maximum bmep in design calculations to estimate engine

displacement required to provide a given torque or power at a specified
speed.
54
Maximum BMEP
Wb 2  T  nR
bmep  
Vd Vd
• The maximum bmep is obtained at WOT at a particular engine speed
• Closing the throttle decreases the bmep
• For a given displacement, a higher maximum bmep means more torque
• For a given torque, a higher maximum bmep means smaller engine
• Higher maximum bmep means higher stresses and temperatures in the

engine hence shorter engine life, or bulkier engine.
• For the same bmep 2-strokes have almost twice the power of 4-stroke
55
Typical 1998 Passenger Car Engine Characteristics

Vehicle Engine Displ. Max Power Max Torque BMEP at BMEP at
type (L) (HP@rpm) (lb-ft@rpm) Max BT Rated BP
(bar) (bar)
Mazda L4 1.839 122@6000 117@4000 10.8 9.9
Protégé LX
Honda L4 2.254 150@5700 152@4900 11.4 10.4
Accord EX
Mazda L4 2.255 210@5300 210@3500 15.9 15.7
Millenia S Turbo
BMW L6 2.793 190@5300 206@3950 12.6 11.5
328i
Ferrari V8 3.496 375@8250 268@6000 13.1 11.6
F355 GTS
Ferrari V12 5.474 436@6250 398@4500 12.4 11.4
456 GT
Lamborghini V12 5.707 492@7000 427@5200 12.7 11.0
Diablo VT
56
Road-Load Power
• A part-load power level useful for testing car engines is the power required
to drive a vehicle on a level road at a steady speed.
• The road-load power, Pr, is the engine power needed to overcome rolling
resistance and the aerodynamic drag of the vehicle.
Pr  (C R M v g  1  a C D Av Sv2 )  Sv
2
Where CR = coefficient of rolling resistance (0.012 - 0.015)

Mv = mass of vehicle
g = gravitational acceleration
a = ambient air density
CD = drag coefficient (for cars: 0.3 - 0.5)
Av = frontal area of the vehicle
Sv = vehicle speed
57
Specific Fuel Consumption

• For transportation vehicles fuel economy is generally given as mpg, or
L/100 km.
• In engine testing the fuel consumption is measured in terms of the fuel

m f .
mass flow rate
• The specific fuel consumption, sfc, is a measure of how efficiently the

fuel supplied to the engine is used to produce power,
m f m f g
bsfc  isfc  units :
W b W i kW  hr
• Clearly a low value for sfc is desirable since for a given power level
less fuel is consumed
58
Brake Specific Fuel Consumption vs Engine Size
•Bsfc decreases with engine size due to reduced heat losses from gas to
cylinder wall.
•Note cylinder surface to volume ratio increases with bore diameter.

cylinder surface area 2rL 1
 2 
cylinder volume r L r
59
Brake Specific Fuel Consumption vs Engine Speed
• There is a minimum in the bsfc versus engine speed curve
• At high speeds the bsfc increases due to increased friction i.e. smaller W b
• At lower speeds the bsfc increases due to increased time for heat
losses from the gas to the cylinder and piston wall, and thus a smaller
W i
• Bsfc increases with compression ratio due to higher thermal efficiency
60
Performance Maps
Performance map is used to display the bsfc over the engines full load
and speed range. Using a dynamometer to measure the torque and fuel
mass flow rate you can calculate:
2  T  nR m f
bmep  W b  (2  N )  T bsfc 
Vd W b
bmep@WOT
Constant bsfc contours from a

two-liter four cylinder SI engine
61
Engine Efficiencies
• The time for combustion in the cylinder is very short so not all the fuel
may be consumed or local temperatures may no favour combustion
• A small fraction of the fuel may not react and exits with the exhaust gas
• The combustion efficiency is defined as:
actual heat input Qin Q in

c   
theoretical heat input m f  QHV m f  QHV
Where Qin = heat added by combustion per cycle

mf = mass of fuel added to cylinder per cycle
QHV = heating value of the fuel (chemical energy per unit mass)
62
Engine Efficiencies (2)
• The thermal efficiency is defined as:
work per cycle W W

th   
heat input per cycle Qin c  m f  QHV
or in terms of rates
power out W W
th   
rate of heat input Qin c  m f  QHV

• Thermal efficiencies can be given in terms of brake or indicated values
• Indicated thermal efficiencies are typically 50% to 60% and brake thermal
efficiencies are usually about 30%
63
Engine Efficiencies (3)
• Fuel conversion efficiency is defined as:
W W
f  
m f  QHV m f  QHV
Note: f is very similar to th, difference is th takes into account actual
fuel combusted.
m f
sfc 
Recall:
W
Therefore, the fuel conversion efficiency can also be obtained from:
1
f 
( sfc )  QHV
64
Volumetric Efficiency
• Due to the short cycle time and flow restrictions less than ideal amount of
air enters the cylinder.
• The effectiveness of an engine to induct air into the cylinders is measured

by the volumetric efficiency:
actual air inducted ma n  m

v    R a
theor. air  a  Vd  a  Vd  N
where a is the density of air at atmospheric conditions Po, To and for an

ideal gas a =Po / RaTo and Ra = 0.287 kJ/kg-K (at standard conditions
a= 1.181 kg/m3)
• Typical values for WOT are in the range 75%-90%, and lower when the
throttle is closed
65
Air-Fuel Ratio
• For combustion to take place the proper relative amounts of air and fuel
must be present in the cylinder.
The air-fuel ratio is defined as
ma m a
AF  
m f m f
• The ideal AF is about 15:1, with combustion possible in the range

of 6 to 19.
• For a SI engine the AF is in the range of 12 to 18 depending on the

operating conditions.
• For a CI engine, where the mixture is highly non-homogeneous, the

AF is in the range of 18 to 70.
66
Thermal Efficiency
W net
th  
Q in
Mean Effective Pressure
net work for one cycle

mep 
displacement volume
Note: MEP is relatively consistent for given engine types,

regardless of displacement. This means that it is fairly easy to
predict net work if you know the engine type and the displaced
volume.
67
Modeling the IC Engine
• Air Standard Analysis (ASC or hot ASC)

– The working fluid is a fixed mass of air treated as an ideal gas
• No intake or exhaust
– The combustion process is replaced with a heat transfer from a high-
temperature source
– The exhaust process is replaced with a heat transfer to a low-
temperature sink
– All processes are internally reversible
• Cold Air Standard Analysis (cold ASC)
– All of the above
– Heat capacity of the air is assumed to be constant at the ambient
temperature
68
First Law Analysis of Otto Cycle
12 Isentropic Compression AIR
Q W
(u 2  u1 )   ( in )
m m
Win
 (u 2  u1 )
m
vr v2 1 P2 v2 P1v1 P T v
2
  R   2  2 1
vr1
v1 r T2 T1 P1 T1 v2
23 Constant Volume Heat Addition

Qin W
(u3  u 2 )  ( ) Qin
m m AIR
TC
Qin
 (u3  u 2 )
m
P2 P P T
v  3  3  3
RT2 RT3 P2 T2
3  4 Isentropic Expansion
Q W
(u 4  u3 )   (  out ) AIR
m m
Wout
 (u3  u 4 )
m
vr v4
4
 r P4 v4 P3v3 P4 T4 v3
vr v3    
3 T4 T3 P3 T3 v4
4  1 Constant Volume Heat Removal

Qout W
(u1  u 4 )  ( ) Qout
m m AIR
Qout
 (u 4  u1 ) BC
m
P4 P P P
v  1  4  1
RT4 RT1 T4 T1
First Law Analysis Parameters
Net cycle work:
Wcycle  Wout  Win  m u3  u4   m u2  u1 
Cycle thermal efficiency:
Wcycle Wout  Win  u3  u 4    u2  u1 

th   
Qin Qin  u3  u 2 
 u3  u2    u4  u1  u4  u1
th   1
u3  u 2 u3  u 2
Indicated mean effective pressure is:
Wcycle imep Qin  r  1  Qin / m  r 

imep     
 th    th
V1  V2 P1 P1V1  r  1  k  1  u1  r  1 
Cycle Work
• The net work output per cycle Wcycle can be increased by either:
i) Increasing the compression ratio, or
ii) Increase Qin (increase the engine bore).
3’’
P
3 (ii)
4’’
Qin 4
Wcycle
4’
2
(i)
1
1’
V2 V1
P
SI Engine - Otto Cycle 3
1 2 3 4
TDC 2
BDC
1
TDC BDC
v
• 1-2 Isentropic compression from BDC to TDC
T
W12  m  u2  u1  3
• 2-3 Isochoric heat input (combustion)

Q23  m  u3  u2 
nst
co
• 3-4 Isentropic expansion (power stroke)
v=
4
W34  m  u3  u4  2 co
n st
v=
• 4-1 Isochoric heat rejection (exhaust)
Q41  m  u4  u1  1
s
73
Cold Air-Standard Analysis
• For a cold air-standard analysis the specific heats are assumed to be constant
evaluated at ambient temperature values (k = cp/cv = 1.4).
• For the two isentropic processes in the cycle, assuming ideal gas with
constant specific heat using Pv k  const. Pv  RT yields:
k 1
k 1
T2  v1  T2  P2  k
12:     r k 1   
T1  v2  T1  P1 
k 1
k 1 k 1
T4  v3  1 T4  P4  k
34:        
T3  v4  r T3  P3 
cv (T4  T1 ) T 1
th  1  1  1  1  k 1
const cV cv (T3  T2 ) T2 r
P
Otto Cycle Performance 3
Compression Ratio
2
v1 v4
CR   4
v2 v3
1
TDC BDC
Thermal Efficiency v
T
3
Wnet W34  W12 u u
th ,ASC    1 4 1
Q in Q23 u3  u2
nst
co
v=
T 4
th ,cold ASC  1  1  1  CR1 k 2 co
n st
T2 v=
1
s
75
P
Otto Cycle Performance 3

2
W W  W12  u3  u4    u2  u1  4
mep  net  34 
Vdisp Vdisp  v1  v2 
1
TDC BDC
v
cv  T3  T4    T2  T1   T
mepcold ASC 
 v1  v2  3
Cold ASC values (Table C.13a) ...
nst
co
v=
Btu Btu st
4
c p  0.24 cv  0.172 2 co
n
lbm-R lbm-R v=
cp
k  1.4 1
cv s
76
• In early CI engines the fuel was injected when the piston reached TC
and thus combustion lasted well into the expansion stroke.
• In modern engines the fuel is injected before TC (about 20o)
Fuel injection starts

Fuel injection starts
Early CI engine Modern CI engine
• The combustion process in the early CI engines is best approximated by

a constant pressure heat addition process  Diesel Cycle
• The combustion process in the modern CI engines is best approximated

by a combination of constant volume and constant pressure  Dual Cycle
Early CI Engine Cycle and the Thermodynamic Diesel Cycle
FUEL Fuel injected

A
at TC
I
R
Fuel/Air
Mixture Combustion
Products
Actual
Cycle
Intake Compression Power Exhaust

Stroke Stroke Stroke Stroke
Qin Qout
Air
Diesel TC
Cycle
BC
Compression Const pressure Expansion Const volume

Process heat addition Process heat rejection
Process Process
Air-Standard Diesel cycle
Process 1  2 Isentropic compression

Process 2  3 Constant pressure heat addition
Process 3  4 Isentropic expansion
Process 4  1 Constant volume heat rejection
Cut-off ratio:
Qin
v3
rc 
v2
Qout
v2 v1
TC
TC BC BC
First Law Analysis of Diesel Cycle
Equations for processes 12, 41 are the same as those presented
for the Otto cycle
23 Constant Pressure Heat Addition AIR Qin

Qin P  V  V2 
(u3  u 2 )  (  ) 2 3
m m
Qin
 (u3  P3v3 )  (u 2  P2 v2 )
m
Qin RT2 RT3 T v
 ( h3  h2 ) P   3  3  rc
m v2 v3 T2 v2
3  4 Isentropic Expansion
Q W
(u 4  u3 )   (  out )
m m AIR
Wout
 (u3  u 4 )
m
vr v v4 v4 v2 v1 v2 r vr v4 r
4
 4 note v4=v1 so       4
 
vr3
v3 v3 v2 v3 v2 v3 rc vr v3 rc
3
P4 v4 P3v3 P T r
  4  4
T4 T3 P3 T3 rc
Thermal Efficiency
Qout m u u
 Diesel  1   1 4 1
cycle Qin m h3  h2
For cold air-standard the above reduces to:
 Diesel  1  k 1  

1  1 rck  1   Otto  1 
1
const cV 
r  k rc  1 

 recall,
r k 1
Note the term in the square bracket is always larger than one so for the
same compression ratio, r, the Diesel cycle has a lower thermal efficiency
than the Otto cycle
When rc (=v3/v2)1 the Diesel cycle efficiency approaches the

efficiency of the Otto cycle
Thermal Efficiency
Modern CI Engines
12 < r < 23
The cut-off ratio is not a natural choice for the independent variable
A more suitable parameter is the heat input, the two are related by:
k  1  Qin  1 as Qin 0, rc1 and Otto

rc  1    k 1
k  P1V1  r
Higher efficiency is obtained by adding less heat per cycle, Qin, need to
run engine at higher speed to get the same power.
k = 1.3
k = 1.3
Modern CI Engine Cycle and the Thermodynamic Dual Cycle
Fuel injected
A at 20o bTC
I
R
Air Combustion
Products
Actual
Cycle
Intake Compression Power Exhaust

Stroke Stroke Stroke Stroke
Qin Qin Qout
Air
Diesel TC
Cycle
BC
Compression Const volume Const pressure Expansion Const volume

Process heat addition heat addition Process heat rejection
Process Process Process
Dual Cycle
Process 1  2 Isentropic compression
Process 2  X Constant volume heat addition
Process X  3 Constant pressure heat addition
Process 3  4 Isentropic expansion
Process 4  1 Constant volume heat rejection
X 3 Qin
3
2 Qin
X
4
4 2
1
1 Qout
Thermal Efficiency
Qout m u4  u1
 Dual  1   1
cycle Qin m (u X  u2 )  (h3  hX )
For cold air-standard the above reduces to:
1  rck  1 
 Diesel  1  k 1  
const c V
r  (  1)  k  rc  1 
where rc= v3/vX and  = P3/P2
Note, the Otto cycle (rc =1) and the Diesel cycle (=1) are special cases:
Otto  1 
1  Diesel

 1  k 1  

1  1 rck  1 
r k 1 const cV 
r  rc  1 
k 
The use of the Dual cycle requires information about either the fractions
of constant volume and constant pressure heat addition (common
assumption is to equally split the heat addition), or the maximum
pressure P3.
Transformation of rc and a into more natural variables yields
k  1  Qin  1   1 1 P3
rc  1     
k  P1V1  r k 1 k  1  r k P1
For the same inlet conditions P1, V1 and the same compression ratio:
Otto   Dual   Diesel
For the same inlet conditions P1, V1 and the same peak pressure
(actual design limitation in engines):
 Diesel   Dual   otto

For the same inlet conditions P1, V1 For the same inlet conditions P1, V1
and the same compression ratio P2/P1: and the same peak pressure P3:
Qout
th  1 
Qin
1
4 Tds
 1 3
2 Tds
tto
O al
Du
sel el
Die Dies
al
Du
to
Ot
P
CI Engine - Diesel Cycle
2 3
1 2 3 4
TDC
4
BDC
1
TDC BDC
v
• 1-2 Isentropic compression from BDC to TDC
T
W12  m  u2  u1 
• 2-3 Isobaric heat input (combustion) 3
Q23  W23  m  u3  u2  =c
on
st
P
• 3-4 Isentropic expansion (power stroke) 2
4
st
W34  m  u3  u4  co
n
v=
• 4-1 Isochoric heat rejection (exhaust)
Q41  m  u4  u1  1
s
90
P
Diesel Cycle Performance
2 3
Compression Ratio Cutoff Ratio

v1 v3
CR  CO 
v2 v2 4
1
TDC BDC
Thermal Efficiency v
T
Wnet W23  W34  W12 u u
th ,ASC    1 4 1 3
Q in Q23 h3  h 2 on
st
P =c
2
CR1 k  CO k  1 n st
4
th ,cold ASC  1  co

k  CO  1 v=
1
s
91
P
Diesel Cycle Performance
2 3
Wnet W23  W34  W12  h3  h 2    u4  u1 

mep    4
Vdisp Vdisp  v1  v2  1
TDC BDC
v
c p  T3  T2   cv  T4  T1 
mep cold ASC  T
 v1  v2 
3
st
Cold ASC values (Table C.13a) ... on
P =c
2
Btu Btu st
4
c p  0.24 cv  0.172 co
n
lbm-R lbm-R v=
cp
k  1.4 1
cv s
92
Cycle Evaluation
• Strategy
– Build the property table first, then do the thermodynamic analysis
• Real fluid model
– EES (fluid name = ‘air_ha’)
• Air standard model
– Ideal gas with variable heat capacities
• Table C.16 (Air Tables)
• EES (fluid name = ‘air’)
• Cold air standard model
– Ideal gas with constant heat capacities evaluated at the beginning
of compression
• Atmospheric conditions
93
• Known Parameters
– Number of cylinders in the engine
– Enough information to determine
the mass of the air trapped in the
cylinder
– Engine ratios (compression and cutoff)
– Rotational speed of the engine (rpm)
– Engine type
• All cylinders complete a thermodynamic cycle in either two or
four strokes
– P and T at the beginning of compression
– P or T at the end of combustion
94
The power developed by the engine can be determined by
 
Wnet  N cylWnet 
 
N
 r
Crankshaft rotational speed

Number of cylinders  rev 
 Btu   min   hp-min 
W net   cyl    
 cyl-cycle  rev   Btu 
 cycle 
 
From the Otto or
conversion factor
Diesel Cycle analysis
Crankshaft revolutions per cycle
95
IC Engine Exhaust Emissions
96
ENGINE EMISSIONS AND AIR POLLUTION
The exhaust of automobiles is one of the major contributors to the world's air
pollution problem. Recent research and development has made major reductions in
engine emissions, but a growing population and a greater number of automobiles
means that the problem will exist for many years to come.
Four major emissions produced by internal combustion engines are
hydrocarbons (He), carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), and
solid particulates.
1- Hydrocarbons are fuel molecules which did not get burned and smaller non-
equilibrium particles of partially burned fuel.
2- Carbon monoxide occurs when not enough oxygen is present to fully react all
carbon to CO2 or when incomplete air-fuel mixing occurs due to the very short engine
cycle time.
3- Oxides of nitrogen are created in an engine when high combustion temperatures cause
some normally stable N2 to dissociate into monatomic nitrogen N, which then combines with
reacting oxygen.
4- Solid particulates are formed in compression ignition engines and are seen as black smoke
in the exhaust of these engines. Other emissions found in the exhaust of engines include
aldehydes, sulfur, lead, and phosphorus.
97
Pollutant Formation and Control

• All IC engines produce undesirable emissions as a result of combustion.
• The emissions of concern are unburned hydrocarbons (UHC), carbon

monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen such as nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide
(NOx), sulfur dioxide, and solid carbon particulates.
• These emissions pollute the environment and contribute to acid rain, smog
odors, and respiratory and other health problems.
• HC emissions from gasoline-powered vehicles include a number of toxic

substances such as benzene, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs),
1,3-butadiene and three aldehydes (formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, acrolein).
• Carbon dioxide is an emission that is not regulated but is the primary

greenhouse gas responsible for global warming.
98
Historical Perspective
• During the 1940s air pollution as a problem was first recognized in the Los
Angeles basin.
• Two causes of this were the large population density and the natural weather
conditions. Smoke and other pollutants combined with fog to form smog.
• In 1966 HC and CO emission limits were introduced in California.
• All of North America usually follows California’s lead (all US in 1968).
• By making more fuel efficient engines and with the use of exhaust after
treatment, emissions per vehicle of HC, CO, and NOx were reduced by
about 95% during the 1970s and 1980s.
• Automobiles are more fuel efficient now (2x compared to 1970) but there
Are more of them and the trend is to larger SUVs, as a result fuel usage is
unchanged over this period.
99
Ontario Drive Clean Program

In Ontario every vehicle must undergo a tail pipe emission test every
other year to check compliance with regulation:
• Nitrogen Oxide – 984 ppm @ 3000 rpm
• Carbon Monoxide – 0.48% @ 3000 rpm and 1.0% @ 800 rpm
• Unburned hydrocarbons – 86 ppm @ 3000 rpm and 200 ppm @ 800

rpm
• Particulates (diesels only at present) – 30% opacity
• Evaporative Emissions (SI only at present)
100
Ontario Drive Clean Program Stats
Test results between 1999 and March 2004
Light-Duty Program*: 14.6% failed test
Heavy-Duty Diesel**: 4% failed test
Heavy-Duty Non-Diesel**: 27.3% failed test
* 6 million vehicles (automobiles, vans, SUVs, pick-ups) in program

** 200,000 vehicles in program
101
Nitrogen Oxides
• NOx includes nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
• In SI engines the dominant component of NOx is NO

• Forms as a result of dissociation of molecular nitrogen and oxygen.
• Since the activation energy of the critical elementary reaction O+N2→NO+N
is high the reaction rate is very temperature dependent, w''′ ~ exp (-E/RT)
• Therefore NO is only formed at high temperatures and the reaction rate is
relatively slow.
• At temperatures below 2000K the reaction rate is extremely slow, so NO
formation not important.
102
SI Engine In-cylinder NO Formation
• Since the cylinder temperature changes throughout the cycle the NO reaction rate
also changes.
• Each fluid element burns to its AFT based on its initial temperature, elements that
burn first near the spark plug achieve a higher temperature.
• Since the chemistry is not fast enough the actual NO concentration tends toward but
never achieves the equilibrium value.
If NO concentration is lower than equilibrium value – NO forms
If NO concentration is higher than equilibrium value – NO decomposes
• Once the element temperature reaches 2000K the reaction rate becomes so slow
that the NO concentration effectively freezes at a value greater than the equilibrium
value.
• The total amount of NO that appears in the exhaust is calculated by summing the
frozen mass fractions for all the fluid elements:
x NO  01 x NO dx
103
x=0
x=1
-15o (x = 0) 25o (x = 1)
(assuming no mixing of fluid elements)
Equilibrium concentration:
x=0 based on the local temperature, pressure,
equivalence ratio, residual fraction
x=1 Actual NO concentration:

based on kinetics
104
Effect of Equivalence Ratio on NO Concentration
One would expect the peak NO concentrations to coincide with highest AFT.
Typically peak NO concentrations occur for slightly lean mixtures – that
corresponds to lower AFT but higher oxygen concentration.
105
Effect of Various Parameters on NO Concentration
Increased spark advance and intake manifold pressure both result in higher
cylinder temperatures and thus higher NO concentrations in the exhaust gas
Pi= 658 mm Hg Pi= 354 mm Hg
= 0.97
= 0.96
= 1.31
= 1.27
106
Exhaust NO Concentration Reduction
Since the formation of NO is highly dependent on cylinder gas temperature
any measures taken to reduce the AFT are effective:
• increased residual gas
• exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)
• moisture in the inlet air
In CI engines the cylinder gas temperature is governed by the load and
injection timing
IDI/NA – indirect injection

naturally aspirated
DI/NA – direct injection

naturally aspirated
107
Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbon emissions result from the presence of unburned fuel in the

engine exhaust.
However, some of the exhaust hydrocarbons are not found in the fuel, but are
hydrocarbons derived from the fuel whose structure was altered do to
chemical reaction that did not go to completion. For example: acetaldehyde,
formaldehyde, 1,3 butadiene, and benzene all classified as toxic emissions.
About 9% of the fuel supplied to the engine is not burned during the normal
combustion phase of the expansion stroke.
Only 2% ends up in the exhaust the rest is consumed during the other
three strokes.
As a consequence hydrocarbon emissions cause a decrease in the thermal

efficiency, as well as being an air pollutant.
108
Hydrocarbon Emission Sources for SI Engines
There are six principal mechanisms believed to be responsible for
hydrocarbon emissions:
% fuel escaping
Source normal combustion % HC emissions
Crevices 5.2 38
Oil layers 1.0 16
Deposits 1.0 16
Liquid fuel 1.2 20
Flame quench 0.5 5
Exhaust valve leakage 0.1 5
Total 9.0 100
109
Hydrocarbon Emission Sources
Crevices – these are narrow regions in the combustion chamber into which
the flame cannot propagate because it is smaller than the quenching
distance.
Crevices are located around the piston, head gasket, spark plug and valve
seats and represent about 1 to 2% of the clearance volume.
The crevice around the piston is by far the largest, during compression the
fuel air mixture is forced into the crevice (density higher than cylinder gas
since gas is cooler near walls) and released during expansion.
Crevice
Piston ring
110
Hydrocarbon Emission Sources
Oil layers - Since the piston ring is not 100% effective in preventing oil
migration into the cylinder above the piston, oil layers exist within the
combustion chamber. This oil layer traps fuel and releases it later during
expansion.
Deposits – With continued use carbon deposits build up on the valves, cylinder
and piston head. These deposits are porous with pore sizes smaller than the
quenching distance so trapped fuel cannot burn. The fuel is released later
during expansion.
Liquid fuel – For some fuel injection systems there is a possibility that liquid
fuel is introduced into the cylinder past an open intake valve. The less volatile
fuel constituents may not vaporize (especially during engine warm-up) and be
absorbed by the crevices or carbon deposits.
Flame quenching – It has been shown that the flame does not burn completely
to the internal surfaces, the flame extinguishes at a small but finite distance
from the wall. Most of this gas eventually diffuses into the burned gas during
expansion stroke.
111
Hydrocarbon Exhaust Process
When the exhaust valve opens the large rush of gas escaping the cylinder
drags with it some of the hydrocarbons released from the crevices, oil layer
and deposits.
During the exhaust stroke the piston rolls the hydrocarbons distributed along the
walls into a large vortex that ultimately becomes large enough that a portion of
it is exhausted.
Blowdown Exhaust
Stroke
112
Hydrocarbon Exhaust Process
The first peak is due to blowdown and the second peak is due to vortex roll up
and exhaust (vortex reaches exhaust valve at roughly 290o)
Exhaust Exhaust
valve valve
opens closes
BC TC 113
Hydrocarbon Emission Sources for CI Engines
Crevices - Fuel trapped along the wall by crevices, deposits, or oil due to
impingement by the fuel spray (not as important as in SI engines).
Undermixing of fuel and air - Fuel leaving the injector nozzle at low velocity,
at the end of the injection process cannot completely mix with air and burn.
Overmixing of fuel and air - During the ignition delay period evaporated fuel
mixes with the air, regions of fuel-air mixture are produced that are too lean to
burn. Some of this fuel makes its way out the exhaust.
Longer ignition delay more fuel becomes overmixed.
Exhaust HC, ppm C
114
Note for the direct injection diesel the hydrocarbon emission are the worst
at light load (long ignition delay)
115
Particulates
A high concentration of particulate matter (PM) is manifested as visible

smoke in the exhaust gases.
Particulates are any substance other than water that can be collected by
filtering the exhaust, classified as:
1) solid carbon material or soot
2) condensed hydrocarbons and their partial oxidation products
Diesel particulates consist of solid carbon (soot) at exhaust gas temperatures

below 500oC HC compounds become absorbed on the surface.
In a properly adjusted SI engines soot is not usually a problem
Particulate can arise if leaded fuel or overly rich fuel-air mixture are used.
burning crankcase oil will also produce smoke especially during engine warm
up where the HC condense in the exhaust gas.
116
Particulates (soot)
Most particulate material results from incomplete combustion of fuel HC which
occurs in fuel rich mixtures.
Based on equilibrium the composition of the fuel-oxidizer mixture at the onset

of soot formation occurs when x ≥ 2a (or x/2a ≥ 1) in the following reaction:
y
C x H y  aO2  2aCO  H 2  ( x  2a )C ( s )
2
i.e. when the (C/O) ratio exceeds 1. Experimentally it is found that the critical
C/O ratio for onset of soot formation is between 0.5 and 0.8
The CO, H2, and C(s) are subsequently oxidized in the diffusion flame to
CO2 and H2O via the following second stage
1 1
CO  O2  CO2 C ( s )  O2  CO2 H 2  O2  H 2O
2 2
Any carbon not oxidized in the cylinder ends up as soot in the exhaust!
117
Particulates and CI Engines
Particulates are a major emissions problem for CI engines.
Exhaust smoke limits the full load overall equivalence ratio to about 0.7
= 0.7
= 0.5 One technique for measuring particulate

involves diluting the exhaust gas with
= 0.3 cool air to freeze the chemistry before
measurements
An outstanding problem for diesel engine designers is that in order to reduce

NOx one wants to reduce the AFT but this has the adverse effect of decreasing
the amount of soot oxidized, or increases the amount of soot in the exhaust.
118
Particulates and CI Engines
An example of this dilemma is changing the start of injection, e.g., increasing
the advance increases the AFT
Crank angle bTC for

start of injection
119
Carbon Monoxide
• Carbon monoxide appears in the exhaust of fuel rich running engines.
• For fuel rich mixtures there is insufficient oxygen to convert all the carbon in
the fuel to carbon dioxide.
C8H18-air
120
Carbon Monoxide
The C-O-H system is more or less at equilibrium during combustion and

expansion.
Late in the expansion stroke when the cylinder temperature gets down to
around 1700K the chemistry in the C-O-H system becomes rate limited and
starts to deviate from equilibrium.
In practice it is often assumed that the C-O-H system is in equilibrium until

the exhaust valve opens at which time it freezes instantaneously.
The highest CO emission occurs during engine start up (warm up) when the
engine is run fuel rich to compensate for poor fuel evaporation.
Since CI engines run lean overall, emission of CO is generally low and not
considered a problem.
121
Emission Control
The current emission limits for HC, CO and NOx have been reduced to 4%,
4% and 10% of the uncontrolled pre-1968 values, respectively.
Three basic methods used to control engine emissions:
1) Engineering of combustion process - advances in fuel injectors, oxygen

sensors, and on-board computers.
2) Optimizing the choice of operating parameters - two NOx control measures

that have been used in automobile engines since 1970s are spark retard and
EGR.
3) After treatment devices in the exhaust system - catalytic converter
122
Catalytic Converter
All catalytic converters are built in a honeycomb or pellet geometry to expose
the exhaust gases to a large surface made of one or more noble metals:
platinum, palladium and rhodium.
Rhodium used to remove NO and platinum used to remove HC and CO.
Lead and sulfur in the exhaust gas severely inhibit the operation of a catalytic
converter (poison).
123
Three-way Catalytic Converter
A catalyst forces a reaction at a temperature lower than normally occurs.
As the exhaust gases flow through the catalyst, the NO reacts with the CO,
HC and H2 via a reduction reaction on the catalyst surface.
e.g., NO+CO→½N2+CO2 , NO+H2 → ½N2+H2O, and others
The remaining CO and HC are removed through an oxidation reaction forming

CO2 and H2O products (air added to exhaust after exhaust valve).
A three-way catalysts will function correctly only if the exhaust gas composition
corresponds to nearly (±1%) stoichiometric combustion.
If the exhaust is too lean – NO are not destroyed

If the exhaust is too rich – CO and HC are not destroyed
A closed-loop control system with an oxygen sensor in the exhaust is used to

determine the actual A/F ratio and used to adjust the fuel injector so that the
A/F ratio is near stoichiometric.
124
Effect of Mixture Composition
Since thermal efficiency is highest for slightly lean conditions it may seem that
the use of a catalytic converter is a rather severe constraint.
The same high efficiency can be achieved using a near stoichiometric mixture
and diluting by EGR
125
Effect of Temperature
The temperature at which the converter becomes 50% efficient is referred to
as the light-off temperature.
The converter is not very effective during the warm up period of the engine
126
Catalytic Converter for Diesels
For Diesel engines catalytic converters are used to control HC and CO,
but
reduction of NO emissions is poor because the engine runs lean in order
to
avoid excess smoke.
The NO is controlled by retarding the fuel injection from 20o to 5o before

TC in order to reduce the peak combustion temperature.
This has a slight negative impact, increases the fuel consumption by about
15%.
127
IC Engine Fuels
128
IC Engine Fuels
Crude oil contains a large number of hydrocarbon compounds (25,000).
The purpose of refining is to separate crude oil into various fractions via a
distillation process, and then chemically process the fractions into fuels and
other products.
A still is used to heat a sample, preferentially boiling off lighter components

which are then condensed and recovered.
The group of compounds that boil off between two temperatures are referred
to as fractions.
The order of the fractions as they leave the still are naptha, distillate, gas oil,
and residual oil. These are further subdivided using adjectives light, middle,
and heavy.
The adjectives virgin or straight run are often used to signify that no chemical
processing has been done to a fraction.
129
Distillation Process
Refining Process
130
Gasoline
Light virgin (or straight run) naptha can be used as gasoline.
Gasoline fuel is a blend of hydrocarbon distillates with a range of boiling

points between 25 and 225oC (for diesel fuel between 180 and 360oC)
Chemical processing is used to:

• Produce gasoline from a fraction other than light virgin, or
• Upgrade a given fraction (e.g., Alkylation increases the MW and
octane number of fuel: produce isooctane by reacting butene with
isobutane in the presence of a catalyst.
131
Reformulated Gasoline
In order to reduce CO and HC the oxygen content of gasoline is increased to
about 3% by weight (U.S. oxygenated fuels program, winter only).
The U.S. reformulated gasoline program is a year-round program used

to reduce ozone by requiring a minimum oxygen content of 2% by weight and
maximum benzene content of 1%.
The primary oxygenates are MTBE (CH3)OC(CH3)3 and ethanol (C2H5OH)
Also as part of the reformulated gasoline program sulfur is restricted to 31 ppm
Note: gasoline with 10% ethanol by volume also marketed as “gasohol”
132
Flame Propagation in SI Engine
After intake the fuel-air mixture is compressed and then ignited by a spark
plug just before the piston reaches top center
The turbulent flame spreads away from the spark discharge location.
Flow
N = 1400 rpm
Pi = 0.5 atm
133
In-cylinder Parameters
Tu – unburned gas temperature

Tb,e – early burning gas elements
Tb,l – late burning gas elements
134
Flame Development
Flame development angle d – crank angle interval during which flame
kernal develops after spark ignition.
Rapid burning angle b – crank angle required to burn most of mixture
Overall burning angle - sum of flame development and rapid burning angles
Mass fraction burned
135
Mixture Burn Time vs Engine Speed
The time for an overall burn is:
 90%
t90% 
 min   360 
o
N  
 60s   rev 
If we take a typical value of 50 crank angles for the overall burn
N (rpm) t90%(ms)
Standard car at idle 500 16.7
Standard car at max power4,000 2.1
Formula car at max power 19,000 0.4
Note: To achieve such high engine speeds a formula car engine has a very
short stroke and large bore.
136
Mixture Burn Time vs Engine Speed
How does the flame burn all the mixture in the cylinder at high engine speeds?
The piston speed is directly proportional to the engine speed, up ~ N
Recall the turbulent intensity increases with piston speed, ut = ½ up
Recall the turbulent burning velocity is proportional to the turbulent intensity

St ~ ut, so at higher engine speeds the turbulent flame velocity is also higher
and as a result need less time to burn the entire mixture
Combustion duration in crank angles (40-60 degrees) only increases a small

amount with increasing engine speed.
 = 1.0
Pi =0.54 atm
Spark 30o BTC
137
Heat Losses During Burn
During combustion the cylinder volume is very narrow.
Heat loss to the piston and cylinder head is very important
In order to reduce the heat loss want burn time to be small (high flame velocity)
accomplished by either increasing
a) laminar burning velocity, or
b) turbulence intensity.
Highest laminar burning velocity is achieved for slightly rich mixtures (for
isooctane maximum Sl = 26.3 cm/s at  1.13)
138
Optimum F/A Composition
Maximum power is obtained for a F/A that is about 1.1 since this gives the
highest burning velocity and thus minimum heat loss.
Best fuel economy is obtained for a F/A that is less than 1.0
139
Spark Timing
Spark timing relative to TC affects the pressure development and thus the
imep and power of the engine.
Want to ignite the gas before TC so as to center the combustion around TC.
The overall burning angle is typically between 40 to 60o, depending on engine

speed.
Engine at WOT, constant

engine speed and A/F
motored
140
Maximum Brake Torque Timing
If start of combustion is too early work is done against piston and if too late
then peak pressure is reduced.
The optimum spark timing which gives the maximum brake torque, called
MBT timing occurs when these two opposite factors cancel.
Engine at WOT, constant

engine speed and A/F
141
Effect of Engine Speed on Spark Timing
Recall the overall burn angle (90% burn) increases with engine speed, to
accommodated this you need a larger spark advance.
WOT
Fixed spark advance

Brake Torque
MBT
2600 rpm
N
142
Effect of Throttle on Spark Timing
At part-throttle the residual gas fraction increases, and since residual gas
represents a diluent it lowers the laminar burning velocity.
Because of lower burning velocity overall burn angle increases so need to

increase spark advance.
At idle, where the residual gas fraction is very high, the burn time is very long
and thus a long overall burn angle which requires more spark advance.
In modern engines the onboard computer sets the spark advance based on
information such as the throttle position, intake manifold pressure and engine
speed.
143
Abnormal Combustion in SI Engine
Knock is the term used to describe a pinging noise emitted from a SI engine
undergoing abnormal combustion.
The noise is generated by shock waves produced in the cylinder when

unburned gas ahead of the flame auto-ignites.
144
Knock cycle
Exhaust valve
Spark plug
Normal cycle Intake valve Observation window

for photography
145
Engine Damage From Severe Knock
Damage to the engine is caused by a combination of high temperature and
high pressure.
Piston Piston crown
Cylinder head gasket Aluminum cylinder head 146

Knock
As the flame propagates away from the spark plug the pressure and
temperature of the unburned gas increases.
Under certain conditions the end-gas can autoignite and burn very rapidly
producing a shock wave
flame shock
P,T P,T
end-gas
time time
The end-gas autoignites after a certain induction time which is dictated by

the chemical kinetics of the fuel-air mixture.
If the flame burns all the fresh gas before autoignition in the end-gas can
occur then knock is avoided.
Therefore knock is a potential problem when the burn time is long!
147
Knock
Engine parameters that effect occurrence of knock are:
i) Compression ratio – at high compression ratios, even before spark ignition,

the fuel-air mixture is compressed to a high pressure and temperature which
promotes autoignition
ii) Engine speed – At low engine speeds the flame velocity is slow and thus
the burn time is long, this results in more time for autoignition
However at high engine speeds there is less heat loss so the unburned gas
temperature is higher which promotes autoignition
These are competing effects, some engines show an increase in propensity to

knock at high speeds while others don’t.
iii) Spark timing – maximum compression from the piston advance occurs at
TC, increasing the spark advance makes the end of combustion crank angle
approach TC and thus get higher pressure and temperature in the unburned
gas just before burnout.
148
Knock Mitigation Using Spark Advance
Spark advance set to 1% below MBT to avoid knock
x
x X crank angle corresponding
to borderline knock
1% below MBT
x
x
149
Fuel Knock Scale
To provide a standard measure of a fuel’s ability to resist knock, a scale has

been devised in which fuels are assigned an octane number ON.
The octane number determines whether or not a fuel will knock in a given
engine under given operating conditions.
By definition, normal heptane (n-C7H16) has an octane value of zero and

isooctane (C8H18) has a value of 100.
The higher the octane number, the higher the resistance to knock.
Blends of these two hydrocarbons define the knock resistance of intermediate

octane numbers: e.g., a blend of 10% n-heptane and 90% isooctane has an
octane number of 90.
A fuel’s octane number is determined by measuring what blend of these two

hydrocarbons matches the test fuel’s knock resistance.
150
Octane Number Measurement
Two methods have been developed to measure ON using a standardized
single-cylinder engine developed under the auspices of the Cooperative Fuel
Research Committee in 1931.
The CFR engine is 4-stroke with 3.25” bore and 4.5” stroke, compression ratio
can be varied from 3 to 30.
Research Motor
Inlet temperature (oC) 52 149

Speed (rpm) 600 900
Spark advance (oBTC) 13 19-26 (varies with r)
Coolant temperature (oC) 100
Inlet pressure (atm) 1.0
Humidity (kg water/kg dry air) 0.0036 - 0.0072
Note: In 1931 iso-octane was the most knock resistant HC, now there are
fuels that are more knock resistant than isooctane.
151
Octane Number Measurement
Testing procedure:
• Run the CFR engine on the test fuel at both research and motor conditions.
• Slowly increase the compression ratio until a standard amount of knock
occurs as measured by a magnetostriction knock detector.
• At that compression ratio run the engines on blends of n-hepatane and
isooctane.
• ON is the % by volume of octane in the blend that produces the stand. knock
The antiknock index which is displayed at the fuel pump is the average of
the research and motor octane numbers:
RON  MON
Antiknock index 
2
Note the motor octane number is always higher because it uses more severe
operating conditions: higher inlet temperature and more spark advance.
The automobile manufacturer will specify the minimum fuel ON that will resist
knock throughout the engine’s operating speed and load range.
152
Knock Characteristics of Various Fuels
Formula Name Critical r RON MON
CH4 Methane 12.6 120 120

C3H8 Propane 12.2 112 97
CH4O Methanol - 106 92
C2H6O Ethanol - 107 89
C8H18 Isooctane 7.3 100 100
Blend of HCs Regular gasoline 91 83
n-C7H16 n-heptane 0 0
For fuels with antiknock quality better than octane, the octane number is:
ON = 100 + 28.28T / [1.0 + 0.736T+(1.0 + 1.472T - 0.035216T2)1/2]
where T is milliliters of tetraethyl lead per U.S. gallon
153
Fuel Additives
Chemical additives are used to raise the octane number of gasoline.
The most effective antiknock agents are lead alkyls;

(i) Tetraethyl lead (TEL), (C2H5)4Pb was introduced in 1923
(ii) Tetramethyl lead (TML), (CH3)4Pb was introduced in 1960
In 1959 a manganese antiknock compound known as MMT was introduced to

supplement TEL (used in Canada since 1978).
About 1970 low-lead and unleaded gasoline were introduced over toxicological
concerns with lead alkyls (TEL contains 64% by weight lead).
Alcohols such as ethanol and methanol have high knock resistance.
Since 1970 another alcohol methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) has been
added to gasoline to increase octane number. MTBE is formed by reacting
methanol and isobutylene (not used in Canada).
154
Effect of Fuel-air Dilution
If the fuel-air mixture is leaned out with excess air or is diluted with increasing
amounts of residual gas or exhaust gas recycle burn time increases
and the cycle-by-cycle fluctuations in the combustion process increases.
Eventually a point is reached where engine operation becomes rough and

unstable, this point defines the engine’s stable operating limit.
With no or little dilution combustion occurs prior to the exhaust valve opening
consistently cycle after cycle.
With increasing dilution first in a fraction of the cycles the burns are so slow
that combustion is only just completed prior to the exhaust valve opening.
As dilution increases further, in some cycles combustion is not complete prior

to the exhaust valve opening and flame extinguishment before all the fuel is
burned. Finally misfire cycles start to occur where the mixture is not ignited.
As the dilution is further increased the proportion of partial burns and misfires
increase to a point where the engine no longer runs.
155
Effect of Fuel-air Dilution
Set spark timing for maximum brake torque (MBT), leaner mixture needs more
spark advance since burn time longer.
Along MBT curve as you increase excess air reach partial burn limit (not all
cycles result in complete burn) and then ignition limit (misfires start to occur).
156
In a CI engine the fuel is sprayed directly into the cylinder and the fuel-air
mixture ignites spontaneously.
These photos are taken in a RCM under CI engine conditions with swirl air flow
1 cm
0.4 ms after ignition 3.2 ms after ignition
3.2 ms after ignition Late in combustion process 157

158

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Internal Combustion Engine

Internal Combustion Engine

1-Introduction (History, Engine classification, Engine component

An Introduction to Combustion : Concepts and Applications w/IBM3.5’ Disk

The internal combustion engine is a heat engine that converts

Internal combustion engines are reciprocating engines having pistons

Historical Development of the I.C. Engine

• 1862 -- Rochas described the basic principles essential for

Two-Stroke Cycle Engines

L Head engine I Head engine F Head engine T Head engine

(b) In-Line. (e) W Engine.

(c) V Engine. (f) Opposed Piston Engine.

(a) Naturally Aspirated. No intake air pressure boost system.

7. Method of Fuel Input for SI Engines

Name of Engine Parts

Valve cover Rocker arm

Piston Piston pin

“Backbone” of the engine.

• Cylindrical holes in which the

Seals the “top-end” of the

One-piece castings of iron alloy.

• Controls flow into and out of the

Piston and Rings

• Connects the piston to the

Works with connecting rod to change reciprocating to rotary motion.

 Smart Engine Engine with computer controls that regulate operating

4. Third Stroke: Power Stroke The power stroke continues as combustion

5. Exhaust Blowdown Same as with an SI engine.

6. Fourth Stroke: Exhaust Stroke Same as with an SI engine.

BC The cylinder volume at any crank angle

For most engines B ~ L (square

Piston Velocity vs Crank Angle

The torque exerted by the engine is T:

The torque exerted by the engine is T:

The power W delivered by the engine turning at a speed N and

Note: is the shaft angular velocity in units rad/s 43

Torque is a measure of an engine’s ability to do work and power is

The term brake power, W b, is used to specify that the power is

The power produced in the cylinder is termed the indicated W i

The indicated work per cycle is given by Wi   PdV

Compression Power Exhaust Intake

Wi,g =area A + area C (>0)

Wp =area B + area C (<0)

Wi,n = Wi,g – Wp = (area A + area C) – (area B – area C)

where N – crankshaft speed in rev/s

Power can be increased by increasing:

Engines with superchargers or turbochargers can have intake pressures

Wi,n = area A + area B

Supercharges increase the net indicated work but is a parasitic load

Friction power can be measured by motoring the engine.

The mechanical efficiency is defined as:

Mechanical Efficiency (2)

• Mechanical efficiency depends on throttle position, engine design

• Typical values for car engines at WOT are:

• Power varies with speed but torque is “independent” of engine speed

recall W  N  Wcycle and W  N  T so T  Wcycle

Rated brake power

Max brake torque There is a maximum in the torque versus

Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (IMEP)