REVIEW IN EQUIPMENT

AND MAINTINANCE
OJE I. LIPAYON, RRT
Discovery of X-rays
During 1870s and 1880s, many universities and physics laboratories were investigating
he conduction of cathode rays or electron, through a large partially evacuated glass
tube know as Crooks Tube. Sir William Crookes the tube that bears his name was the
forerunner of modern fluorescent lamps and x-ray tubes. Willhelm Roentgen was
experimenting with a type of Crookes tube when he discover x-rays.
November 8, 1895 – discovery of x-rays.
In early 1896, he produced and published the first medical x-ray image. The image of
his wife's hand. Conducted in the early February 1896, in the physics laboratory in
Dartmouth College.
In 1901, he received the first Nobel Price in Physics.
Three general types of x-ray examinations : Radiography, Fluoroscopy and CT.

Radiography uses film or solid state image receptor and an x-ray tube, this provide a
fixed images

Fluoroscopy is usually conducted with the x-ray tube under the examination table. This
provides a moving images on a television monitor or flat panel display.

Computed Tomography uses a rotating x-ray source and detector array. A volume of
data is acquired so that a fixed images can be reconstructed in any anatomical plane
coronal, sagittal, transvers or oblique.
Michael Pupin in 1896, said to have demonstrate the use of radiographic intensifying screen

Charles L. Leonard introduced the double-emulsion film.

The fluoroscopy was developed in 1898 by the American inventor Thomas A. Edison. Edison's original
fluorescent material was barium platinocyanide

Zinc cadmium sulfide and calcium tungstate, two materials use today.

Clarence Dally, counted as first x-ray fatality. He experience severe x-ray burn that eventually required
amputation of both arms. Died in 1904.

20th century a Boston Dentist, William Rollins. Introduced the fist application of collimation and filtration
1907 H.C Snook introduced a substitute high-voltage power supply , an interrupters transformer, for static
machines and induction coils then is use.
1913, William D. Coolidge unveiled his hot-cathode x-ray tube to the medical community. A vacuum tube
that allowed x-ray intensity and energy to be selected separately and with great accuracy

*Radiology emerged as a medical specialty because of he Snook transformer and the Coolidge x-ray tube.

1913, Gustav Bucky (German) invented the stationary grid (Glitter blende); 2 months later, he applied the
second patent for a moving grid. In 1915, H. Potter (American), probably unaware of Bucky's patent because
of World War I, also invented a moving grid. Potter-Bucky grid was introduced in 1921.
In 1946, the light amplifier tube was demonstrated at Bell Telephone Laboratories. Was adopted in
fluoroscopy by 1950 as an image intensifier tube.
1960s, Diagnostic Ultrasonography, as did the gamma camera.
Positron Emission Tomography (PET) and x-ray CT were developed in 1970s
RADIOGRAPHY
Radiography was the first medical imaging technology, made possible when the
physicist Wilhelm Roentgen discovered x-rays on November 8, 1895. Roentgen also
made the first radiographic images of human anatomy . Radiography(also called
roentgenography) defined the field of radiology, and gave rise to radiologists,
physicians who specialize in the interpretation of medical images.
Transmission imaging refers to imaging in which the energy source is outside the body on
one side, and the energy passes through the body and is detected on the other side of the
body. Radiography is a transmission imaging modality.

Projection imaging refers to the case when each point on the image corresponds to
information along a straight line trajectory through the patient. Radiography is also a
projection imaging modality. Radiographic images are useful for a very wide range of
medical indications, including the diagnosis of broken bones, lung cancer, cardiovascular
disorders, etc.
Electrical Circuits
When the resistance is controlled and the conductor is made into a close path, the
result is an electrical circuit.

Electric potential is measured is volts and electrical current is measured in amperes

Electric resistance is measured in ohms.

The manner in which electrical currents behave in an electric circuit is described by the
relationship known as ohms law.

Ohms law, the voltage across the total circuit or any portion of the circuit is equal to
the current times the resistance.( V=I R)
Two types of circuits.
A Series Circuit, all the circuit elements are connected in a line along the same conductor.
Rules:
 The total resistance is equal to the sum of individual resistances.
 The current through each conductor element is the same and is equal to the total circuit current.
 The sum of the voltages across each circuit element is equal to the total circuit voltage.

A Parallel Circuit, contains elements that are connected at their ends rather than lying in a line along a
conductor.
Rules:
 The sum of the currents through each circuit element is equal to the total circuit current.
 The voltage across each circuit element is the same and is equal to the total circuit voltage.
 The total resistance is the inverse of the sum of the reciprocals of each individual resistance.
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
A series circuit contains the resistive elements having values of 8, 12 and 15 Ω. If
the voltage is 110V, what is the (a) total resistance and current; (b) the current
through each resistance and (c) the voltage across each resistor?
Suppose the previous example where a parallel circuit rather than series circuit.
What would be the correct values for (a), (b) and (c) total current through each
resistor; (b) voltage across each resistor and total Ω?
Direct Current, electrons flow in only one direction

Alternating current, electrons that flow alternately in opposite directions.

Electric Power
measured in watts (W). X-rays imaging system requires 20 to 150 kW of electric
power.
One watt is equal to 1A of current flowing through an electric potential of 1 V.
Voltage- the amount of electrical potential energy (in joules) that is stored in each
(coulomb) charge.(J/C)

Current- the rate of the flow of electron. Expressed in Ampere or Coulomb per second
Power (W)= voltage (V) x current (A).

(P=IV) (because power is) 1 wat= 1 volt x 1 amp

1 J/s(also a unit of power) = 1 J/C x 1C/s

FIGURE 5-32 The schematic circuit of an x-ray imaging system.
 THE X-RAY IMAING SYSTEM

*Primary function of x-ray machine is to convert electric energy and into electromagnetic
energy.

Patient-supporting examination couch may be flat or curved but most be uniform in thickness
and as transparent to x-rays as possible. Carbon Fiber couches are strong and absorb little x-
radiation which contributes to reduce patient radiation dose.

X-ray imaging system has 3 principal parts: the x-ray tube, the operating console and the high
voltage generator.
OPERATING CONSOLE
part of x-ray imaging system most familiar to radiologic technologist
allows radiologic technologists to control the x-ray tube current and voltage
Radiation Quantity
refers to the number of x-rays or the intensity of the x-ray beam.
usually expressed in miligray(mGya) or miligray/milliampere-second (mGya/mAs).

Also expressed in mR or mR/mAs

Radiation Quality
refers to the penetrability of the x-ray beam and is expressed in kilovolt peak (kVp) or more precisely, half-value
layer (HVL) .
The operating console usually provides for control of line compensation, meters for kVp, mAs and exposure time.
Imaging systems that incorporate Automatic Exposure control (AEC) may have separate control for mAs.
All of the electric circuits that connect the meters and controls on the operating console is at low voltage to
minimize the possibility of hazardous shock.
The Line Compensator measures the voltage provided to the x-ray imaging system and adjust that voltage to precisely
220 V.
AUTOTRANSFORMER
-has a single winding and is designed to supply a precise voltage to the filament circuit and to the high-voltage
circuit of the x-ray imaging system.
-also known as variable transformer
TheLaw of Transformers applies to the autotransformer, just as it does to the standard transformer. The
autotransformer operates on the principle of self-induction, whereas the standard transformer operates on the
principle of mutual induction. The standard transformer permits much larger increases or decreases in voltage, and it
electrically isolates the primary from the secondary circuit, unlike the autotransformer.A switching autotransformer has
a number of taps on the input and outputsides to permit small incremental increases or decreases in the output
voltage. The following equation, known as the law of transformers:

VP=NP
VS NS
With a predetermined numberof "turns" on the primary and secondary coils, this mutual inductance property can increase
or decrease the voltage in electrical circuits. The devices that provide this change of voltage (current changes in the
opposite direction) are called transformers.
 
*Power supplied to the x-ray imaging system is delivered first to the autotransformer.
Transformer Core Losses
The ability of iron or steel to carry magnetic flux is much greater than it is in air, and this ability to allow
magnetic flux to flow is called permeability.
However, when a magnetic flux flows in a transformers steel core, two types of losses occur in the steel. One
termed “eddy current losses” and the other termed “hysteresis losses”.

Hysteresis Losses

Additional resistance created by the alternate reversal of the magnetic field caused by the alternating current.

Are caused because of the friction of the molecules against the flow of the magnetic lines of force required to
magnetise the core, which are constantly changing in value and direction first in one direction and then the
other due to the influence of the sinusoidal supply voltage. This molecular friction causes heat to be developed
which represents an energy loss to the transformer.

*Hysteresis loss is due to reversal of magnetization in the transformer core.

Eddy Current Losses
are caused by the flow of circulating currents induced into the steel caused by the flow of the magnetic
flux around the core. These circulating currents are generated because to the magnetic flux the core is acting
like a single loop of wire. Since the iron core is a good conductor, the eddy currents induced by a solid iron
core will be large.

Eddy currents induced current by acting like a negative force generating resistive heating and power loss
within the core.

Eddy current losses within a transformer core can not be eliminated completely, but they can be greatly
reduced and controlled by reducing the thickness of the steel core called laminations.
The losses of energy, which appears as heat due both to hysteresis and to eddy
currents in the magnetic path, is known commonly as “transformer core losses”.
Since these losses occur in all magnetic materials as a result of alternating magnetic
fields. Transformer core losses are always present in a transformer whenever the
primary is energized, even if no load is connected to the secondary winding.
Adjustment of Kilovolt Peak (kVp)
Older x-ray operating consoles have adjustment controls labeled major kVp and minor kVp. Minor kVp
adjustment "fine tunes" the selected technique. Major and minor kVp adjustment represent two separate
series of connections on the autotransformer.
*kVp defines the quality of the x-ray beam.
The low voltage output from the autotransformer becomes the input to the high voltage set-up
transformer that increases the voltage to the chosen kilovolt peak .
The kVp meter is placed across the output terminals of the autotransformer and therefore actually reads
voltage not kVp. The scale of kVp meter, however, registers kilovolts because of the known multiplication
factors of the turns ratio.
Prereading kVp meter, allows the voltage to be monitor before the exposure. It is placed in the circuit
between autotransformer an the high voltage transformer.
FIGURE 5-32 The schematic circuit of an x-ray imaging system.
Control of Milliamperage (mA)
the x-ray tube current, crossing from cathode to anode is measured in milliaperage.
As filament circuit increases, the filament becomes hotter and more electrons are released by thermionic emission.
Filaments normally operate at currents of 3 to 6 A.
*thermionic emission is the release of electrons from a heated filament.
Correction circuit has to be incorporated to counteract the space charge effect.
X-ray tube current is controlled through a separate circuit called the filament circuit. Connections on the
autotransformer provide voltage for the filament circuit. Precision resistors are used to reduce this voltage to a
value that corresponds to the selected milliamperage. Precision resistors results in a fixed stations that provide tube
current of 100, 200, or 300 mA and higher.
Falling Load Generator constitute an exception. In a falling load generator, the exposure begins at maximum mA
and the mA drops as the anode heats. The result is minimum exposure time. Disadvantage, examinations in
which long exposure time are used (breathing technique for later of the thoracic spine), rapid sequence of
exposures in which heat buildup in the tube may cause exposure time to increase.
*the product x-ray tube current and the exposure time(s) is mAs, which is also an electrostatic charge.
1 A = 6.3 x 1018 e-/C
An electron has a charge of 1.60 x 10^-19 coulombs, so it takes 6.3 x 10^18 electrons to make up 1 coulomb of
charge. Multiply the current in coulombs per second by 6.3 x 10^18 electrons per coulomb.
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
At 400 mA with exposure time of 100ms. What is the total number of electrons?
0.1s (100ms) x 400 mA (Since 1A= 1 C/s)= 400 mC/s
= (40 mC/s) (0.1s)= 40 mC
=( 40 x 10-3 C) (6.3 x 1018 e-/C)= 252 x 1015e- = 2.52 x 1017e-
The voltage from the mA selector switch is then delivered to the filament
transformer. mA meter monitor the x-ray tube current that is placed in the tube
circuit. It is connected at the center of the secondary winding of the high-voltage
step-up transformer. The secondary voltage is alternating at 60 Hz such that at the
center of this windings is zero volts.
Filament Transformer
The full title of this transformer is the filament heating isolation step-down
transformer. It steps down the voltage approximately 12 V and provides the current
to heat the filament . The primary windings are thin copper and carry a current of
0.5 and 1A and approximately 150 V. The secondary windings are thick and at
approximately 12V electric potential and carry a current of 5 to 8 A (not mA!)
Exposure Timer
-use to regulate the duration of the x-ray exposure
In addition to safety feature, another timing circuit is activated on every radiographic exposure. This timer,
called a guard timer, will terminate as exposure after a prescribed time, usually approximately 6s.
Timer circuit consist of an electronic device whose action is to "make" and "break" the high voltage
across the x-ray tube. This is nearly always done in the primary side of the high voltage transformer, where
voltage in lower.
Four types of Timing Circuits
Synchronous Timers
In the United States, electric current is supplied at a frequency of 60 Hz. In Europe, Latin America and
other parts of the world, the frequency is 50 Hz.
synchronous motor a special type of electric motor, is a precision device designed to drive a shaft at
precisely 60 rps. It cannot be used for serial exposures because they must be reset after each exposure.
Electronic Timers
most sophisticated, most complicated and most accurate exposure timers. They
can be used in rapid serial exposure, they are particularly suitable for interventional
radiology procedures.
*contained in most radiographic equipment.
*most exposure timers are electronic and are controlled by microprocessor.
mAs Timers
provides the safest tube current in the safest time possible. Measures total tube
current. Located at the secondary side of the high voltage transformer.
* mAs timers are use in falling-load and capacitor discharge imaging systems.
Automatic Exposure Control
also referred to as a photometer.
is a device that measures the quantity of radiation that reaches the image
receptor. It automatically terminates the exposure when the image receptor has
received the required radiation intensity.
used to provide consistency of radiographic quality
relies of positioning skills and extensive knowledge of surface and internal
anatomy because the part being radiograph must be accurately positioned over
ionization sensors.
High-voltage Generator
is responsible for increasing the output voltage from the autotransformer to the kVp necessary for x-ray
production. Contains 3 primary parts: the high voltage transformer, the filament transformer and rectifiers.
 
High-voltage Transformer
is a step-up transformer, that is, the secondary voltage is higher than the primary
voltage because the number of secondary windings is greater than the number of the
primary windings. The ratio between the two is called turns ratio which is usually
between 500:1 and 1000:1.
Because the transformers operate only on an alternating current, the voltage wave
forms on both sides of a high-voltage transformer is sinusoidal. The only difference
between the primary and secondary waveforms is their amplitude. The primary voltage
is measured is volts (V) and secondary voltage is measured in kilovolts (kV). The primary
current is measured in amperes (A), and the secondary currents is measured in
milliamperes (mA).
Voltage Rectification
x-ray tube requires a direct current to operate properly, that is, electron flow only
in one direction. Some means must be provided for converting AC to DC.
Rectification is the process of converting AC to DC.
*Rectifier is located between the step-up transformer and there x-ray tube.
Rectification is accomplished with diodes.
*Voltage rectification is required to ensure that electrons flow from x-ray tube
cathode to anode only.
Semiconductors are classed into two types: N-type, have loosely bound electrons that
are relatively free to move. P-type semiconductors have spaces called holes, where
there are no electrons.
Half-wave Rectification
 is a condition in which voltage is not allow to swing negatively during the negative half of its cycle.
 only one half of the AC wave form appears in the output.
 half-wave-rectified circuits contain zero, one, or two diodes.
 x-ray output from a half-wave high-voltage generator pulsates, producing 60 x-ray pulse each
seconds
In some potable and dental x-ray imaging systems, the x-ray tube serves as the vacuum tube rectifier. Such
system is said to be self-rectified, and the resulting wave form is the same as that of the half-wave
rectification.
Full-Wave Rectification
It is possible to devise a circuit that rectifies the entire AC waveform. This form of rectification is called
full-wave rectification. Contains at least 4 diodes in the high-voltage circuit.
main advantage of full-wave rectification is that the exposure time for any given technique is cut in
half. The pulsed x-ray out put of a full-wave rectified machine occurs 120 times each second.
Single-Phase Power
this results in pulsating x-ray beam. The x-rays produced when the single-phase
voltage waveform has a value of zero are of little diagnostic value because of their
low energy; such x-rays has low penetrability.
Three-Phase Power
multiple voltage waveforms are superimposed on one another, resulting in a
waveform that maintains a nearly high voltage.

the voltage applied across the x-ray tube is nearly constant, never dropping to
zero during exposure.
High-Frequency Generator
 full-wave rectified power at 60 Hz is converted to a higher frequency, from 500 to
25000 Hz, and then is transferred to high voltage.
 main advantage is its size.
 produce nearly constant potential voltage waveform, improving image quality at
lower patient radiation dose.
 first use in portable x-ray imaging systems.
 uses inverter circuit. Inverter circuits are high-speed switched or choppers, that
converts DC into a series of square pulses.
The advantage of such circuits is that they are much smaller, less costly, and more
efficient than 60 Hz high voltage generators.
* full-wave rectification or high-frequency voltage generation is used in almost all
stationary x-ray imaging system.
Capacitor Discharge Generator
operates by charging a series of silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs) from the voltage
of a nickel-cadnium (NiCd) battery. By slacking the SCRs, the charge is released to form
the x-ray tube current needed to produced x-rays.
During capacitor discharge, the voltage falls approximately 1kV/mAs.
Grid-controlled x-ray tube, an automatic beam stopper or both. Stop the x-ray emission.
A grid-controlled x-ray tube has a specially designed cathode to control x-ray tube
current.
Voltage Ripple
Single-phase power
Has 100% voltage ripple. The voltage varies from zero to its maximum value.
*Unit of four diodes provides full wave rectification for single-phase generator produces pulsating direct
current resultant waveform contains two pulses per cycle (120 pulses per second) because uses both portions
of rectified alternating current . Results in 100% ripple with voltage dropping to zero 120 times per second
meaning x-ray production ceases 120 times per second. 60 pulse for half wave rectified single phase power.
3 phase 6 pulse
Unit with 6 or 12 diodes provides full-wave rectification for three-phase equipment. Because three phase
current is use, voltage never drops to zero during exposure . Voltage ripple for 3 phase 6 pulse is
approximately 14%; the voltage actually used is about 86% of the kVp set.
Voltage ripple for 3 phase, 12 pulse is approximately 4%; the voltage actually used is about 96% of the
kVp set.
High-frequency generators
Voltage ripple of high-frequency generators is approximately 1%; the voltage
actually used is about 99% of the kVp set.

*High-frequency units result in lower patient dose

*Advantage of less ripple, principal advantage is the greater radiation quantity
and quality.
The fluoroscopic mode, however, usually remains single-phase power and takes
advantage of the electric capacitance of the x-ray tube cables, which results in a
smoother voltage waveform.
The principal disadvantage of a three-phase x-ray apparatus is its initial cost. The cost
of high-frequency generators is moderate. Low-ripple generators have greater overall
capacity and flexibility compared with single-phase equipment
Power Rating
Transformer and high-voltage generators usually are identified by their power
rating in kilowatts (kW).
Electric power is measured in watts (W), which is power= Watts/ time. Joules is
the IS unit for energy, and seconds in the IS unit of time. J/s
Power= Current x Potential (P= IV)
Watts= Amperes x Volts