AN INTRODUCTION TO GENDER

STUDIES: GS201
By
MS G. BALANCE

2017
 WEEK 1

• INTRODUCTION TO THE MODULE

• CONCEPTUALIZATION OF THE CONCEPT
GENDER.
• DEFINING FUNDAMENTAL TERMS TO GENDER
STUDIES
• CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT TASKS.
 Definition of key terms
Gender

• The term refers to the male or female roles as they are prescribed by society.
• The roles can be learned individually and be renegotiated by each new
generation
• Male and females roles are determined primarily by the social cultural and
economic organization of a society and by prevailing religious and moral
perceptions.
• Females and male roles are not static, but are subject to constant change
they vary enormously from society to society. And even with the society
there may be significant differences depending on social class, family status,
ethnicity or religious background.
• Roles are not neutral, but they are characterized by different possibilities for
making choices and different rights and decision making powers generally to
the disadvantage of women
 sex
• Sex refers to the biological characteristics that categorize someone as male or female.
• While they are often used interchangeably, sex and gender are distinct terms
• A person sex is a biologically determined female or male according to certain
identifiable features which are fixed.
• Women have been seen as nurturing because of their biology.
• The biological difference can however not explain why women have less access to
power and lower status than men.
• To understand and challenge the cultural value placed on some –one’s biological sex
and unequal power hierarchy we need the rational concept of gender.
• The value of the distinction between the terms sex and gender has been challenged
more recently as sex has also been seen as a socially constructed
• Sex roles.
• These are duties, activities, tasks or responsibilities that males and females perform or
undertake that are inevitable
 Patriarchy

• These are systematic social structures that institutionalize

male’s physical; social and economic power over women.
• It is to do with the attitudes which regard male’s dominance
and superiority and monopoly over women as natural and
normal.
• In such a system, leadership roles and decisions making is
exclusively the preserve for men.
• Patriarchal society is characterized by stratification system
with masculine figures at the helm of the situation.
• Patriarchal society views male’s dominance as an ascribed
status on men something achieved on merit.
 Patriarchy continued...
• Some feminists use the concept of patriarchy to explain the subordination
of women by the localized structures. These structures work to the
benefit of men by constraining women life choices and chances.
• The roots of patriarchy are often located in women’s reproductive roles
and sexual violence interwoven with the process of capitalist exploitation.
• The main side of patriarchal oppression have been identified as
housework the state ,culture ,paid work, sexuality and violence
• Behaviors that discriminate against women because of their gender are
seen as patriarchal practices e.g. occupational segregation, exclusion and
unequal pay.
• A rigid and universal concept of patriarchy denies women’s space for
resistance and strategy change.
 Gender roles

• These are the social prescriptions of men and

women or the duties, tasks assigned to either
males or females
• The roles differ from one society to the other.
they are conditioned by the household
structure, access to resources and specific
impacts of the global economy.
 Gender relations
• These are ways in which culture or society defines rights,
responsibilities
• The identities of men and women
 
Gender bias
• These is a tendency to be in favor of or against males and
females on the basis of their gender. e.g a case where some
schools teach fashion and fabrics to girls only because of their
stereotypical belief that girls are best at sewing than boys.
 Gender needs

• These are shared and prioritized needs

identified by women that arise from common
experiences as a gendered, Certain women’s
interest’s in political or practical nature related
to their experience as a gendered person
• These identifies the way in which women’s
gendered interests defined by women
themselves and howth can be satisfied in the
planning process
 Practical Gender Needs

• These are the immediate gender needs identified by

women to assist their survival in socially accepted role
• Policies laid down ensure or should ensure that women
and their families have adequate needs such as health
care, food, access to safe drinking water and sanitation.
• Practical gender needs do not directly challenge gender
inequalities even though these needs may be a direct
result of these women subordinate position in society.
 Strategic gender needs

• These are the requirements which when they

are met challenge and change power relations
between men and women in the society.
• The needs are less visible than the practical
ones and are long term
• One examples being access to decision making
positions.
 Feminism

• Feminism is generally defined as “advocacy of the rights of

women” (Andermahr et. al. 2000:93).
• The term has been used to mobilize women in movements
aimed at social transformation of sex and gender.
• As a theory, feminism has been used to interrogate
subterranean discourses in literature, language and many other
cultural practices that are largely believed to be the norm.
• Feminism critiques “commonsense assumptions that circulate in
social practice and in media” (Andermahr, 2000:93).
• To this end, feminism is construed as a discourse of
deconstruction
 Feminists

• Feminists are people who advocate for the entitlements and rights
of women
• They often perceive women as oppressed and unfairly
disadvantaged.
• There are different types of feminists, but they are in agreement
that gender differences are not inscribed in the natural differences
between the sexes.
• Feminists have a political commitment to see transformation of
social attitudes and policies so that women may realize their full
potential.
• A feminist is not necessarily always a woman and being female
does not also translate into one being a feminist.
 Gender Socialization

• The term refers to the acquisition of gender identity

and gender roles.
• Beginning with the home environment and proceeds
with an individual’s increasing and wider social
context.
• The process may be conscious or unconscious.
• It usually connotes the “learning theory and cognitive
development, which assumes a sharp distinction
between biological sex and
gender.”(Andermahr,2000:253).
 STEREOTYPING
• making common misconceptions or assumptions based
on a person’s looks, acts, dressing and other judgments
without confirmed information.

• These assumptions or misconceptions can be either

positive (e.g. those people are generous), or negative
(e.g. those people are generous) or negative (e.g. those
people are greedy).

• But stereotypes are more frequently negative.

 GENDER MAINSTREAMING
• Gender mainstreaming is the process of reducing the gaps in development
opportunities between

• women and men and working towards equality between them”, (FAD, 2009).

• Saver and Cortolezis (2009) postulate that gender mainstreaming is a strategy to

achieve gender equality. It

• is the integration of the gender perspective into every stage of policy processes –
design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation – with the view of promoting
equality between men and women.

• Gender mainstreaming is the process whereby gender concerns are raised routinely
within the everyday operations of an institution or organisation and resolved in a
gender-just manner in normal operations (AAU, 2006).
GENDER MAINSTREAMING CONT....
• Murison (2009) points out that it is a methodology to achieve gender equality
Gender mainstreaming is not about addition of a woman’s component or
even a gender equality component into an existing activity. It goes beyond
increasing women’s participation. It means bringing the experience,
knowledge and interests of women and men to be on the development
agenda.

• It requires changes in goals, strategies and actions so that both men and
women can influence, participate in and benefit from development process

• Gender mainstreaming means addressing gender issues in all aspects of

development, including decision making structures, planning processes,
policy making, budgeting, policies and practices of institutions (Women in
Management, 2006).
 GENDER MAINSTREAMING CONT....
• Gender mainstreaming also implies assessing the
implications for women and men of any planned action
including legislation and ensuring that their concerns and
experiences are fully taken into account in the design,
implementation, monitoring and evaluation of all
activities.

• The aim is to develop interventions that overcome barriers

preventing women and men from having equal access to
the resources and services they need to improve their
livelihoods
 Gender Equity

• The concept refers to fairness and impartiality in the treatment of women

and men in terms of rights benefits ,obligations band opportunities
• FAO has placed Gender equity in access to resources ,goods and services
and decision making among its key strategic objectives in agriculture and
rural development
• it creates social relations in which neither of the sexes suffers
discrimination
• gender equity aims at improving gender relations and gender roles and
archiving gender equality .
• key strategies for gender equity is empowerment
• development should encompass women ‘s long term needs aspirations
,their decisions making power ,their access to and control of critical
resources such as land and labor
 Gender Parity
• It is obtained when the same proportion of boys
and girls relative to their age groups enter the
educational system, archive educational goals and
advance through the different cycles ( Unisco 2003)
• Archiving parity in enrolment is necessary but not
sufficient for achieving equality
• It is considered the first stage , measure of progress
towards gender equality(SubrahSmanian 2007)
 Gender Equality
• It can be defined as a state of being the same/
specially in terms of social status or legal or
political rights.
• It means males and females have equal
opportunities to realize their full human rights
and contributes and bennefit from economic,
cultural and political development.
• NB Parity and equity are the building blocks of
equality.
 Gender Sensitivity
• It is the ability to realize/ recognize gender
issues
• It is a starting point for gender awareness.
Gender Neutrality
 Gender Blindness
• It is the failure to recognize the differences
between males and females.
• It leads to a failure to provide for these
differences.
 Gender Responsiveness
• This refers to the action taken to correct
gender and discrimination so as to ensure
gender equality and equity.
 Empowerment
• Empowerment is a process through which the
marginalized people such as girls and women
become aware of their subordination.
• A process through which the marginalized
acquire skills, knowledge, that they need to
analyze and over com gender discrimination.
• A process of acquiring access to resources and
in participating and deriving benefits.
 The rational for Gender studies
• Emerges to be an important social organizational
variable in all human societies
• It means gender determines who shall have
access to what resources, from whom, where
and how.
• Gender determines who performs what roles
and for what rewards.
• If development is to be meaningful it has to
consider gender relations.
 Rational cont...
• Zimbabwe signed and ratified (to make an agreement official by
signing it of formally approving it) international conventions,
protocols and declarations that promote gender equality.
• Some of the conventions and declarations that promote gender
equality. Examples are:
a. CEDAW- Convention on the elimination of all form of violence
against women.
b. CCPR –The convention on the civil and political rights.
c. ELOSOC- Convention on economic, social and cultural rights. (1966)
d. SADC- Southern African Declaration on Gender and Development.
(1997)
e. Beijing Declaration (1995)
f. MDGs
 How gender is learnt
• Various aspects contributes towards the learning of
gender for example:
1. Parents and Adults in the household and family
2. Toys, pictures, media electronic and print
3. Books, and stories
4. School, peers groups influences
5. Religion and Religious sector
 Biological theories
• Biological theories view differences between men and women as natural and God
given.
• The differences can not be changed
Examples of the Biological Theories
1. Brain laterisation theory: proponents are, John Nicholson, Gray Allen Jeffry ,
Buffeny Antony
2. Psychoanalytic Theory : Proponent is ,Sigmund Freud
3. Sociobiology: Proponents are, William Edward Osborn, David Barash
4. Biology and Practicality : Proponent is Murdok G.P
5. Biology Expressive and Instrumental Roles : Proponent Talcot Parsons
 The brain Laterisation theory
• Theorist argue that , the hemispheres of the
brain are involved in different tasks.
• For example: The Left hemisphere is
responsible for language and analytic skills
• Women and girls are said to have a well
developed left hemisphere.
• Therefore explains why women and girls are
verbal and language skills
 Brain laterisation cont...
• The right hemisphere is said to be responsible for
visual –spatial abilities
• These abilities are responsible for artistic,
mathematical and engineering skills.
• Men and boys have well developed right
hemispheres
• The pronounced development makes boys and
men good in mathematical as well as engineering
skills.
 Brain laterisation cont...
Weakness of the theory
• fails to explain why some girls do well in
mathematics and science subjects at lower
grades
• It does not explain why some girls do better
high school than boys
• Also fails to explain why some men and boys
have well developed verbal and language skills.
 Psychoanalytic theory
• Freud argues that gender differences at infants are determined by
presents or absence of the penis.
• Having a penis is equivalent to being a boy and not having a penis to
being a girl.
• The boy is said to hate the father because of their competition for
the mother’s attention.
• Fearing the father’s threats the boy suppresses his feelings and
identifies with the father
• Girls suffer from penis envy, and hates the mother for having
castrated her.
• Fear of castigation results in the girl identifying with the mother
• Girls adopts dependents and submissive roles
 Psychoanalysis cont...
Weakness of the theory
• The theory assumes that the penis is more
superior to the vagina and that gender
learning is concentrated at the age of 4-5years
• Critics argue that besides the genetic factors
there are more factors and processes that
contribute to gender learning.
 Biological theory
• Argument is that variation in the behaviour and social roles of men
and women is explained in terms of hormones and the brains.
• Women are said to produce greater amounts of progesterone and
estrogen.
• The production of testosterone and other androgens by males is taken
as related to aggressive behaviour.
• Experiments shows the effects of the above hormones: castrated
male rates tend to fight less, while female rates given extra androgens
after birth are more aggressive in adult life than other female rates.
• Female monkeys given extra androgens display more rough and
tumble play than other female monkeys.
• Girls exposed to high androgen levels had greater aggression.
 Critique of the biological theory
• Theorists such as Ruth Bleire did not appreciate
the idea of using behavioral differences in
animals (rats and monkeys) aggression only
showed fighting behaviour , but in humans it
meant male domination in all spheres of life
• Experiments were done in an artificial
environment (lab) fighting might have been
reduced if the rats were in their normal
environment.
 Tasks
Presentations
• Biology and practicality (Murdock G.P)
• Biology expressive and instrumental roles
(Talcot Parsons)
 Social construction of gender
• Oakley (1972) believes that gender role are a
social construct that is a result of socialization
• The human learn to be either males or
females in their societies
• Socialization is done through the following
processes: manipulation, canalization, verbal
appellation, activities an role modeling.
 Manipulation
• This is when parents and other people (elders)
in society pay attention to certain aspects of
boys and girls as a way of grooming them into
real men and women.
• For example mothers paying too much
attention to the girls hair and type of dressing
>that is grooming them towards femininity.
 Canalization
• The direction of boys and girls to different
objects of play. For example types of toys given
to both boys and girls differ
• The different toys socialize the children
towards specific gender roles e.g girls playing
with household utensils and dolls> grooming
towards nurturance, while boys are given toy
cars, guns etc, >groomed towards out door
activities.
 Verbal Appellation
• This is what parents and other elders say about
boys and girls as a way of showing them what is
expected of them in society as they grow up.
E.g ‘that’s a good girl’, such statements
enhances expected humble behaviour
• For boys utterances such as ‘naughty’ boy,
enhancing typical aggressive behaviour. Or
utterances such as ‘boys don’t cry’ encouraging
bravery in the young boys.
 Activities
• Because society is gendered, it is clear about
what is masculine and feminine. Girls are
encouraged to do domestic tasks while the
boys do out doors tasks.
• Games played also enhance gender roles e.g
girls play house while the boys play soccer
which is often goal oriented.
 Role Modeling
Task
• Read about Albert Bandura and the Bobo doll
experiment.
• Gender is a social construct. Discuss.
( focus is on the nature – nurture controversy)
 Deciding which gender one is
• People decide which gender one is by the
following:
1. Content and manner of speech
2. Facial expressions when speaking
3. Public physical appearance
However the above is debatable.
 Theories of gender inequality
What is a theory?
• Most theorist agree on the definition of a theory as is shown by a host of
definitions which Contain the same subject matter, expressed differently below
are some of the definitions of

• According to Henslin (1999) a theory is a general statement that explains how

two or more facts are related to one another.

• Haralambos and Holborn (1990) define a theory as a set of ideas which claim to
explain how something works. It provides a logical explanation for why things
happens the way they do.

• Therefore a theory defines the causal factors of a relationship and explains the
nature of that relationship
 Differences between feminist theories and
gender theories
Feminist theories Gender theories
• Women centered • Men and women centered
• Focus on the experiences of • Focus on the experiences of
women
both men and women
• View issues from women’s social
world • Seek to make the world a
• Seek to make a better world for better place for both men
women and women
• Are revenging on women • Are about a peaceful co-
• View males as enemies and blame existence of males and
them for women’s subordination females
• Reject assistance from males in
• Accept assistance from males
their struggles
 What the feminist and gender theorists agree on:

• Gender differences are socially rather than biologically

constructed.
• Gender difference can be deconstructed.
• Both question and challenge oppressive gender relations.
• Gender differences are embedded in socio-economic structures
such as
i. Capitalism
ii. Sexism/patriarchy
iii. Racism

iv. Social and cultural institutions

 The Liberal Feminist theory
Proponents are:
• Mary Wollstonecraft 18th Century
• Rebecca Walker
• Harriet Tylaor