Soundings SkewT

Soundings and the Skew-T
Outline
• A brief review of static stability
• The skew-T / log-P
• Inversions
• Mixed Layers
• Air masses, briefly
Adiabatic Process
An adiabatic process is one in which no heat or mass
is exchanged with the environment -- in other words,
a parcel stays a parcel. In the atmosphere, a parcel
expanding / being compressed adiabatically cools / warms
at a constant rate with respect to height. The rate at which
this happens is known as the dry adiabatic lapse rate,
which we’ll denote as gamma:
Γd = g / cp ~ 10K / km
(Note: Γd is positive, because we define the lapse rate as a

rate of cooling for expanding parcels. Don’t let this
confuse you!)
Moist Adiabatic Process
Now, we know that as a parcel cools, it may reach
saturation. When this occurs, the dry adiabatic lapse rate is
no longer valid, since further cooling is mitigated by heat
released during condensation. The process is now
moist adiabatic and the lapse rate is:
Γm ~ 6K / km
In a few minutes, we’ll see what this looks like on the

Skew - T, but first let’s get to the formal definition of
static stability.
Static Stability
Let Γ = - dT / dz represent the lapse rate in a layer of
the atmosphere, we can then define the layer as:
1. Absolutely Stable if Γ < Γm
2. Conditionally Unstable if Γd > Γ > Γm
3. Absolutely Unstable if Γ > Γd
Additionally, we define a special case of absolute

stability if Γ < 0 (i.e. temperature actually increases
with
height.) What do we call this?
Skew-T Log-P
mb ft.
What are all those lines??!

isotherms and adiabats are at right angles to one another,
isotherms slope upward to the right, adiabats upward to the left
pseudoadiabats curve upward, mixing ratio lines slope

upward to the right at an angle to the isotherms
Hey, what are Pseudoadiabats?
To make certain calculations easier, we assume that

condensate falls from the parcel as soon as it forms. This
obviously isn’t entirely realistic, but the resulting lapse
rate
only differs from the moist adiabatic rate by about 1% in
most instances.
Now, let’s see what adiabatic and pseudoadiabatic

processes look like when we plot them up.
An Adiabatic Process
Is this process reversible?

Adiabatic / Pseudoadiabatic Process
Now, is this process reversible?

Stability Quiz
2 3
1 4
2 common inversions
• Subsidence Inversions
– typically form in regions of large scale sinking
motion (under the subtropical highs, under the
left entrance / right exit region of jets) or on the
periphery of convective cells.
• Radiation Inversions
– where would you expect a radiation inversion
to develop? and when?
A subsidence inversion
A radiation inversion
Mixed Layers
A mixed layer is produced by turbulence, which tends to
mix conservative tracers such as potential temperature
and momentum. Moisture is also mixed, although it may
not be mixed uniformly (often there may be a slight
decrease with height).
The most common mixed layer in the atmosphere is the

planetary boundary layer (PBL), which normally
occupies the lower kilometer or two of the atmosphere.
This feature is normally most well-defined in the late
Afternoon. In fact, at other times of day, it may not be
mixed at all. Why?
The Elevated Mixed Layer
Another type of mixed layer that we’ll be interested in
is the elevated mixed layer. This feature typically forms
over high terrain (the Rockies, the Mexican Plateau)
during the spring and summer. It is VERY important
in the severe weather process (it provides a “cap” to the
boundary layer) and you’ll no doubt be hearing a lot
about it later in the course.
Not all layers are mixed....
...and if they’re not, they’re known as “stratified layers.”
We usually think of stratified layers as those in which the
potential temperature and moisture have significant vertical
gradients (i.e. they cut across adiabats and mixing ratio lines at
high angles).
Let’s take a look at a sounding which depicts these features.

Layers and Layers and Layers
What suggests a layer of cloud between 650 and 750

mb?
Air Masses
We can also identify air masses from sounding data. We
do this by looking for features characteristic of certain
environments.
For example, in arctic regions we generally see persistent

radiational cooling, especially in local winter (Why?) This
often produces a very deep radiation inversion that can
extend from the surface to 700mb or so. Very cold surface
temperature and a deep isothermal or inverted surface
layer characterizes the arctic air mass, as we see in the
next slide.
Arctic Air Mass
Now, let’s go to the other extreme. The Tropics!
In particular, the tropical oceans and embedded
landmasses.
The tropical maritime air mass is typified by

the following:
1. A warm, moist boundary layer
2. A subsidence inversion in the mid levels (usually

around 700mb).
3. An approximately psuedoadiabatic lapse rate over a

deep layer
We see a typical sounding in the following slide.

Tropical Maritime Air Mass
What might we expect to see in the tropics from time
to time? And for that matter, what about in the midwest
during severe weather season? Yep, thunderstorms!
Thunderstorms are often called “deep convection”

and a hallmark of deep convection is a pseudoadiatic
temperature profile over the depth of the troposphere
(or nearly so) and near saturation conditions
throughout.
Note these features in the following slide.

Deep Convection
Now Leaving the Troposphere,
We hope You enjoyed your Flight!
The last item we’ll be concerned with for today is
the tropopause, since it’s the upper limit of what we
ordinarily consider “weather.” Is this always the
case? There are other important reasons for knowing
where the tropopause is that we’ll get to later in the
course.
There’s a long, technical definition given by the

WMO, but in general the tropopause is identified
by an abrupt change in lapse rate toward more stable
(sometimes even inverted) conditions.
Finding the Tropopause
Something to Consider
Remember that the sounding (and thus the data plotted
on the Skew - T) is a snapshot in time and in space.
The atmosphere is a fluid and is constantly evolving.
Mixed layers, for example, may not always have a
“textbook” appearance.
By using your knowledge of how and where (and even

when) certain features form, you are in a much better
position to glean information from a sounding and
gain a better understanding of what’s happening in the
atmosphere.

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Soundings and the Skew-T

(Note: Γd is positive, because we define the lapse rate as a

In a few minutes, we’ll see what this looks like on the

1. Absolutely Stable if Γ < Γm

2. Conditionally Unstable if Γd > Γ > Γm

3. Absolutely Unstable if Γ > Γd

Additionally, we define a special case of absolute

What are all those lines??!

pseudoadiabats curve upward, mixing ratio lines slope

To make certain calculations easier, we assume that

Now, let’s see what adiabatic and pseudoadiabatic

Is this process reversible?

Now, is this process reversible?

The most common mixed layer in the atmosphere is the

Let’s take a look at a sounding which depicts these features.

What suggests a layer of cloud between 650 and 750

For example, in arctic regions we generally see persistent

The tropical maritime air mass is typified by

1. A warm, moist boundary layer

2. A subsidence inversion in the mid levels (usually

3. An approximately psuedoadiabatic lapse rate over a

We see a typical sounding in the following slide.

Thunderstorms are often called “deep convection”

Note these features in the following slide.

There’s a long, technical definition given by the

By using your knowledge of how and where (and even

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