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Materials of Construction
Chapter 3: Normal Aggregate
 Introduction
 Size Classification
 Shape and Texture Classification
 Mechanical Properties
 Physical Properties
 Sieve Analysis & Grading Curve
Chapter 3: Normal Aggregate
 Fineness Modulus
 Maximum Aggregate Size
 Practical Grading
 Gap-Graded Aggregate
 Grading Requirements
Introduction
 Approximately, 75% of the concrete volume is

occupied by aggregate; therefore, its quality is of
considerable importance.
 Aggregate affects:
1) The strength of concrete
2) The durability
3) The structural performance
 Inexpensive material dispersed through the cement

paste to produce a large volume of concrete
Introduction
 The following aggregate properties depend on the

properties of the parent rock:
1) Chemical and mineral composition
2) Petrography (description and systematic
classification of rocks)
3) Specific gravity
4) Hardness
5) Physical and chemical stability
6) Pore structure
7) Color
8) Strength
Introduction
 Other properties of the aggregate which are absent

in the parent rock:
1) Particle shape and size
2) Surface texture and absorption
 All the above properties, specially the last two, may

have a considerable influence on the quality of fresh
or hardened concrete
Size Classification
 Concrete is made with aggregate particles covering

a range of sizes up to a maximum size which usually
lies between 10 mm (3/8 in) and 50 mm (2.0 in);
20 mm (3/4 in) is typical
 The particle size distribution among various sizes.

These sizes are expressed in terms of percentage
larger or smaller than a series of sizes of sieves
(How much is retained on a certain sieve).
 The particle size distribution is called grading

Size Classification
 Low-grade concrete may be made with aggregate

from deposits containing a whole range of sizes,
known as all-in or pit-run aggregate
 The alternative (very much more common and

always used in the manufacture of good quality
concrete) is to obtain the aggregate in at least two
lots; fine and coarse
 The main sieve that divides between fine aggregate

(sand) and coarse aggregate is sieve No. 4 ASTM, or
5mm (3/16 in).
Size Classification
 Sand is generally considered to have a lower size

limit of about 0.07 mm (0.003 in) or a little less.
 Material between 0.06 mm (0.002 in) and 0.02 mm

(0.0008 in) is classified as silt, and smaller particles
are termed clay
 Loam is soft deposit consisting of sand, silt, and

clay in about equal proportions
Size Classification
 Reasons for specifying grading limits and maximum

size of aggregate:
1) They affect the water and cement required
for the mixture
2) They affect workability
3) Economy
4) Porosity
5) Shrinkage
6) Durability
Shape & Texture Classification
Table 3.2:
Particle Shape
Classification
of Aggregates
(BS 812: Part
1:1975)
Table 3.3:
Surface Texture
Classification of
Aggregates (BS
812: Part 1: 1975)
 Very fine aggregate are often uneconomically, very

coarse aggregate can produce harsh and
unworkable mixes
 Aggregate particles with high ratio of surface area to

volume tend to lower the workability of the mix.
 Those kinds are the elongated (length is large

compared to width and thickness) and flaky
(thickness is thin compared to length and width)
particles, flaky particles can also affect durability of
concrete
 The particle is considered flaky if its thickness (least

dimension) is less than 0.6 times the mean sieve
size (of the size fraction to which the particle
belongs)
 The particle is considered elongated if its length

(largest dimension) is more than 1.8 the mean sieve
size (of the size fraction to which the particle
belongs)
 Flakiness index:
Mass of flaky particles

Flakiness Index   100 %
Total mass of aggregate
 Elongation index:
Mass of elongated particles

Elongation Index   100 %
Total mass of aggregate
 The standard sieves consist of a series in which the

clear opening of any sieve is approximately one-half
of the opening of the next larger sieve size.
 The standard sieves are:

(1) 75 mm (3.0 in), (2) 37.5 mm (1.5 in),
(3) 19.0 mm (3/4 in), (4) 9.5 mm (3/8 in),
(5) 4.75 mm (3/16 in), (6) 2.36 mm (No.7),
(7) 1.18 mm (No.14), (8) 600 m (No.25),
(9) 300 m (No.52), (10) 150 m (No.100),
and (11) 75 m (No.200)
 Physical, thermal, and sometimes the chemical

properties of the aggregate will influence the
performance of the concrete
 Surface texture depends on:

1) Hardness 2) Grain size
3) Pore characteristics of the parent material
(hard, dense and fine-grained rocks generally
Having smooth fracture surfaces)
4) Degree to which forces acting on the particle
surface have smoothed or roughened it
 Surface texture has a strong influence on the

amount of water required for mixing depending on
the pore characteristics of the aggregate
Mechanical Properties
1. Bond
 Both shape and surface texture of aggregate
influence the strength of concrete and bonding
(Flexural strength is more affected than compressive
strength)
 A rougher texture results in a greater adhesion or

bond between the particles and the cement paste
 The larger surface area of a more angular aggregate

provides a greater bond
1. Bond
 porous particles result in a better bond than
aggregate with texture characteristics, which permit
no penetration of the surface of the particles by the
paste
 The determination of the quality of bond is rather

difficult and no accepted test exists
2. Strength
 The compressive strength of concrete cannot
significantly exceed that of the major part of the
aggregate contained
 It is usually difficult to determine the strength of
aggregate
 To obtain the required information about the
aggregate particles, the following indirect tests may
be carried out:
1) Crushing strength of prepared rock samples
(ACV: Aggregate Crushing Value)
2) AIV ( Aggregate impact value )3) Los angeles
2. Strength
 Compressive strength of excellent aggregate may
achieve up to 80 MPa strength
 Aggregate of moderate or low strength and modulus

of elasticity may show better performance. Because
if volume of concrete changes, due to hydration and
thermal reasons, a lower stress in the cement paste
(when the aggregate is compressible) will occur,
whereas a rigid aggregate might lead to cracking of
the surrounding cement paste.
 Usually, larger sizes of aggregate achieve a higher

crushing strength values
2. Strength
 ACV Test:
Aggregate passing 14.0 mm (0.5) test sieve and
retained on 10.0 mm (3/8) test sieve are dried in an
oven at 100C to 110C for four hours, and then
placed in a cylindrical mold and tamped. A plunger
is put on top of the aggregate and the whole
assembly is placed in a compression-testing
machine and subjected to a load of 400kN (40 Tons)
over a period of ten minutes. The aggregate is then
removed and sieved on 2.36 mm (No.8) sieve.
The ratio of the mass of material passing this sieve
to the total mass of the sample is called ACV
2. Strength
 ACV Test:
- In general, the ACV is greater for a lower

compressive strength
- The influence of aggregate on the strength of
concrete is due not only to the mechanical strength
of aggregate but also to its:
1) Absorption and
2) Bond characteristics
3. Toughness
 It is the resistance of aggregate to failure by impact,
and it is usual to determine the aggregate impact
value of bulk aggregate. The impact is provided by a
standard hammer falling 15 times under its own
weight upon the aggregate in a cylindrical container.
 Aggregate size is as in ACV test and the tested
sample is sieved on the 2.36mm (3/8”) sieve.
 BS 882: 1983 prescribes the following maximum
values of the average of duplicate samples:
 25% when aggregate is to be used in
heavy-duty concrete floor finishes
 30% when aggregate is to be used in
concrete pavement wearing surfaces
 45% when to be used in other concrete
4. Hardness
 Resistance to wear, which is an important property
of concrete used in roads and in floor surfaces
subjected to heavy traffic.
 The aggregate abrasion value of the bulk aggregate

is assessed using aggregate particles between 14
mm and 20 mm (BS 812: Part 113).
 The sample is subjected to abrasion in a standard

machine, the grinding lap being turned 500
revolutions with single-size sand fed continuously at
a prescribed rate.
4. Hardness
 The aggregate abrasion value is defined as the
percentage loss in mass on abrasion.
(High value denotes a low resistance to abrasion)
 The Los Angeles test can also be performed on

aggregates of different sizes with steel balls (ASTM
C 131-81)
Physical Properties
1.Porosity & Absorption
Figure 3.1: Schematic representation of moisture in aggregate

V total = Vsolid + V permeable
pores + V impermeable pores
 V
Physical Properties
1. Porosity & Absorption
 Porosity, permeability, and absorption of aggregate
influence:
1) Bond between aggregate and the cement paste
2) Resistance of concrete to freezing and thawing
(melting)
3) Chemical stability
4) Resistance to abrasion
5) Specific gravity
 The range of porosity of common rocks varies from

0 to 50% "Note that aggregate presents about 3/4 of
the volume of concrete  porosity of the aggregate
material contributes to the overall porosity of
concrete"
Physical Properties
 When all the pores in the aggregate are full, it is said
to be saturated and surface-dry (SSD).
 If this aggregate is allowed to stand free in dry air,
some water will evaporate so that the aggregate is
air-dry
 Prolonged drying in an oven would eventually
remove the moisture completely and, at this stage,
the aggregate is bone-dry (or oven-dry)
 The water absorption is determined by measuring
the decrease in mass of a saturated and surface-dry
sample after oven drying for 24 hours
Weight  SSD   Weight  Oven - Dry 
Absorption   100 %
Weight  Oven - Dry 
Physical Properties
 The actual water absorption of the aggregate has to
be deduced from the total water requirement of the
mix to obtain the effective water/cement ratio, which
controls both the workability and strength of
concrete
Physical Properties
Moisture Content
 It is the water in excess of the saturated and
surface-dry (SSD) condition
 Total water content of a moist aggregate =
absorption + moisture content
Physical Properties
Moisture Content
 Aggregate exposed to rain collects a considerable
amount of moisture, then the mass of water added to
the mix has to be decreased, and the mass of
aggregate must be increased by an amount equal to
the mass of the moisture content
SSD condition for C.A
SSD coarse aggregate

SSD condition for F.A
SSD condition fine

aggregate
Physical Properties
2. Specific Gravity
 Defined as the ratio of mass (or weight) in air of a
unit volume of material to the mass of the same
volume of water at the stated temperature
 Absolute specific gravity: refers to the volume of

solid material excluding all pores
 Apparent specific gravity (ASG): refers to the

volume of the solid material including the
impermeable pores.
Physical Properties
2. Specific Gravity
 ASG is more required in concrete technology and is
equal to the ratio of mass of aggregate dried in an
oven to 100-110C for 24 hours to the mass of water
occupying a volume equal to that of the solid
including the impermeable pores
 Bulk specific gravity refers to the volume of the solid material

including all pores.
 Used in concrete mix Design BSG (SSD) and BSG (D).
Physical Properties
2. Specific Gravity
For fine aggregate: use pycnometer as a vessel
For coarse aggregate: use a wire-basket as a vessel
 Calculations with reference to concrete are generally

based on the saturated surface-dry (SSD) condition
of the aggregate because the water contained in all
the pores does not participate in the chemical
reactions of cement and can, therefore, be
considered as part of the aggregate
Physical Properties
2. Specific Gravity
 The majority of natural aggregate have a Bulk
specific gravity (BSG) of between 2.4 and 2.6, whilst
(at the same time) the values for lightweight and
artificial aggregates extend considerably from below
to very much above this range
wire mesh basket test ,
Specific gravity for C.A
wire mesh basket test

wire mesh basket test
pycnometer test for fine
aggregate, specific gravity for F.A
Physical Properties
3. Bulk Density
 Density in general is expressed in kg/L. On the other
hand, in concrete practice, expressing the density in
kg/m3 is more common
 The absolute density refers to the volume of
individual particles only, and of course it is not
physically possible to pack these particles so that
there are no voids between them
 Thus, when aggregate is to be batched by volume it
is necessary to know the bulk density, which is the
actual mass that would fill a container of unit volume
 The bulk density is used to convert quantities by
mass to quantities by volume
Physical Properties
3. Bulk Density
 The bulk density depends on:
a. How densely the aggregate is packed
b. Size distribution
c. Shape of particles
 Two ways of testing:

1. Loose bulk density
2. Compacted bulk density: Filled and
compacted (tamped) in three layers with a rod
Bulk Density  Loose or Compacted  
The net mass of the aggregate
Volume
Physical Properties
3. Bulk Density
 The ratio of loose bulk density to the compacted
bulk density is usually between 0.87 and 0.96
 The voids ratio indicates the volume of mortar

required to fill the space between the coarse
aggregate particles
Bulk Density
Voids Ratio  1 
  unit mass of water
Where:  is the ASG for the SSD condition
 The maximum bulk density of a mixture of fine and

coarse aggregates is achieved when the mass of the
fine aggregate is approximately 35 to 40%
Sieve Analysis
 The process of dividing a sample of aggregate into

fractions of same particle size is known as sieve
analysis
 Its purpose is to determine the grading or size

distribution of aggregate
 A sample of air-dried aggregate is graded by shaking

or vibrating a nest of stacked sieves
 It should be remembered that 5mm (3/16 in) (No.4

ASTM) is the dividing line between the fine and
coarse aggregate
Grading Curve
 The results of a sieve analysis can be reported in a

tabular form as in the following table (Table 3.7)
 Grading affects workability but not strength
 The grading curve is plotted on a grading chart,

where the ordinates represent the cumulative
percentage passing and the abscissae are the sieve
apertures plotted to a logarithmic scale (gives a
constant spacing for the standard series of sieves).
See Figure 3.2
Grading Curve
Table 3.7:
Example of
Sieve Analysis
Grading
Curve
Figure 3.2:
Example of a
grading curve
(see Table 3.7)
Fineness Modulus (FM)
 The sum of the cumulative percentages retained on

the sieves of the standard series divided by 100
 The standard series consists of sieves: 150m,
300m, 600m, 1.18mm, 2.36mm, 5.0mm (ASTM No.
100, 50, 30, 16, 8, 4) and up to the largest sieve size
present
 Usually FM is calculated for the fine aggregate rather
than for coarse aggregate
 Typical values range from 2.3 to 3.0.
 See the example of calculating FM in Table 3.7
 If all particles in a sample are coarser than, say,

600m (No.30 ASTM), the cumulative percentage
retained on 300m should be entered as 100, the
same value would be entered for 150m
 Higher value indicating a coarser grading
 The usefulness of the fineness modulus lies in

detecting slight variations in the aggregate from the
same source, which could affect the workability of
the fresh concrete
Maximum Aggregate Size
 The larger the aggregate particle the smaller the

surface area to be wetted per unit mass
 If we extend grading to a larger maximum size, it

would lower the water requirement of the mix so
that, for specified workability and richness of mix,
the water/cement ratio can be reduced with a
consequent increase in strength
Practical Grading
 It is important to use aggregate with a grading such

that a reasonable workability and minimum
segregation are obtained in order to produce a
strong and economical concrete
 Tables (3.8 to 3.11) show different grading

requirement for coarse, medium, and fine
(C, M, and F) aggregates
Gap-Graded Aggregate
 Certain sizes of aggregate are omitted
 As mentioned earlier, aggregate particles of a given

size pack so as to form voids that can be penetrated
only if the next smaller size of particles is
sufficiently small. This means that there must be a
minimum difference between the sizes of any two
adjacent particle fractions
 On the grading curve, gap-grading is represented by

a horizontal line over the range of sizes omitted
(Figure 3.5)
Gap-Graded Aggregate
 Gap-graded aggregate can be used in any concrete,

but there are particular uses: preplaced aggregate
concrete and exposed aggregate concrete where a
pleasing finish is obtained, since a large quantity of
only one size of coarse aggregate becomes exposed
after treatment.
 However, to avoid segregation, gap-grading is

recommended mainly for mixes of relatively low
workability that are to be compacted by vibration;
good control and care in handling are essential.
Grading Requirements
 Properties of a good grading curve:

1) Strength of concrete and fully compacted with a
given (W/C) ratio is independent of the grading
2) Grading in the first instance is of importance only
in so far as it affects workability
3) However, development of strength corresponding to
the (W/C) ratio requires full compaction and this can
only be achieved with a sufficiently workable mass.
(In order to compact the concrete it must be
workable)
4) There is no ideal grading curve but compromised
results are aimed for
 Main factors affected by the desired aggregate

grading
1) Tendency to segregation (cement paste,
aggregates, cement mortar)
2) Surface area of aggregate which determine the
amount water necessary to wet all the solids.
3) Relative volume occupied by the aggregate
4) Workability of the mix
 Grading is a major factor of concrete mix,

workability in turn affects:
1) Water and cement requirements
2) It controls segregation
3) Has some effect on bleeding
4) Influences placing and finishing of concrete
5) Affect the properties of the hardened state
strength, shrinkage, and durability
Chapter 4: Quality of Water
 The quality of water is important because impurities

in it may:
- interfere with the setting of the cement
- adversely affect the strength of the concrete or
cause staining of its surface
- also lead to corrosion of the reinforcement
 For these reasons, the suitability of water for mixing
and curing purposes should be considered.
 Clear distinction must be made between the effects
of mixing water and the attack on hardened concrete
by aggressive waters because some of the latter
type may be harmless or even beneficial when used
in mixing.
(805261)
Chapter 5: Fresh Concrete
 Introduction
 Workability
 Factors Affecting Workability
 Cohesion and Segregation
 Bleeding
 Workability Tests
Chapter 5: Fresh Concrete
 Comparison of tests
 Density (Unit Mass or Unit Weight in Air) of
Fresh Concrete
Introduction
 Since the long-term properties of hardened

concrete:
strength, volume stability, and durability
are seriously affected by its degree of compaction, it
is vital that the consistency or workability of the
fresh concrete be such that the concrete can be:
- properly compacted,
- transported,
- placed, and
- finished
sufficiently easily without segregation, which would
be detrimental (harmful or unfavorable) to such
compaction
Workability
 The strict definition of workability is the amount of

useful internal work necessary to produce full
compaction (ease of placing and consolidating
freshly mixed concrete)
 Wet concretes are more workable than dry

concretes, but concretes of the same consistency
(consistency refers to the ease with which the
concrete will flow) may vary in workability
Workability
 Compression is expressed as a density ratio [a ratio

of actual density of a given concrete (partially
compacted) to the density of full compaction]
Density 
Density  (or Strength) of Partially Compacted Concrete
Ratio   
(or Strength) Density 
 
(or Strength) of Fully Compacted Concrete
 
 Because the strength of concrete is adversely and
significantly affected by the presence of voids in the
compacted mass, it is vital to achieve a maximum
density. This requires a sufficient workability for
virtually full compaction to be possible using a
reasonable amount of work under the given
conditions
Workability
 It is obvious that the presence of voids in concrete

reduces the density and greatly reduces the
strength:
(5% of voids can lower the strength as much as 30%)
 Types of voids in hardened concrete:
1) Bubbles of entrapped air
2) Spaces left after excess water has been removed
 Voids may be useful to prevent freezing and thawing
of water in concrete and they depend on the degree
of compaction
Factors Affecting Workability
 These factors include:

1. Water Content (most important factor)
2. Aggregate size, type, and grading
3. Aggregate/cement ratio
4. Presence of admixtures
5. Fineness of cement
 The main factor is water content of the mix since by

simply adding water the interparticle lubrication is
increased
 However, to achieve optimum conditions for
minimum voids, or for maximum density with no
segregation, the influence of aggregate type and
grading has to be considered.
 For example, finer particles require more water to
wet their larger specific surface, whilst the irregular
shape and rougher texture of an angular aggregate
demand more water than, say, a rounded aggregate
 Lightweight aggregate tends to lower the workability.

In fact, workability is governed by the volumetric
proportions of particles of different sizes, so that
when aggregates of varying specific gravity (or
particle density) are used, e.g. semi‑lightweight
aggregate, the mix proportions should be assessed
on the basis of the absolute volume of each size
fraction
 For a constant water/cement (W/C) ratio, the
workability increases as the aggregate/cement ratio
is reduced because the amount of water relative to
the total surface of solids is increased
 A rather high ratio of volumes of coarse aggregate to

fine aggregate can result in segregation and in a
lower workability, so that the mix is harsh and not
easily finished.
 Conversely, too many fines lead to a higher

workability but such an over‑sanded mix makes less
durable concrete
 Air entrainment reduces the water requirement for a

given workability
 There are other two factors affecting workability;

time and temperature.
 Freshly mixed concrete stiffens with time. Some of

the mixing water is absorbed by the aggregate, some
is lost by evaporation (particularly if the concrete is
exposed to the sun or wind), and some is removed
by initial chemical reactions.
 The stiffening of concrete is effectively measured by

a loss of workability with time, knowing as slump
loss, which varies with:
 richness of the mix,
 type of cement,
 temperature of concrete, and
 initial workability.
 A higher temperature reduces the workability and

increases the slump loss
Cohesion and Segregation
 In considering the workability of concrete, concrete

should not segregate, and it ought to be cohesive.
The absence of segregation is essential if full
compaction is to be achieved
 Segregation can be defined as separation of the

constituents of a heterogeneous mixture so that the
distribution is no longer uniform.
 In the case of concrete, it is the differences in the

size of particles (and sometimes in the specific
gravity of the mix constituents) that are the primary
cause of segregation, but its extent can be
controlled by:
1) The choice of suitable grading
2) Care in handling
 The actual extent of segregation depends on the

method of handling and placing of concrete. If the
concrete does not have far to travel and is transferred
directly from the skip or the wheelbarrow to the final
position in the formwork, the danger of segregation is
small
 Segregation forms:
1) The coarser particles tend to separate out since
they travel further along a slope or settle more
than the finer particles (occurs mostly in dry mixes)
2) Separation of grout (cement + water)
(occurs mostly in wet mixes)
 The addition of water would improve the cohesion of

the mix, but when the mix becomes too wet the
second type of segregation would take place.
 To prevent or reduce segregation:
1) Good grading
2) Appropriate handling and placing
3) Proper vibration, needed to achieve good
compaction: neither under nor over vibration
4) Using of air entrainment (reduces segregation)
5) Close specific gravity values for coarse and fine
aggregate
 It must be stressed, nevertheless, that concrete

should always be placed direct in the position in
which it is to remain and must not be allowed to flow
or be worked along the form
 This prohibition includes the use of a vibrator to

spread a heap of concrete over a larger area.
Vibration provides a most valuable means of
compacting concrete, but, because a large amount
of work is being done on the concrete, the danger of
segregation (in placing, as distinct from handling) is
increased with improper use of a vibrator.
 This is particularly so when vibration is allowed to

continue too long: with many mixes, separation of
coarse aggregate toward the bottom of the form and
of the cement paste toward the top may result.
 Segregation is difficult to measure quantitatively but
is easily detected and can be evaluated by:
a) Measuring mix cohesion by the flow table test, or
b) By vibrating a concrete cube or cylinder for
about 10 minutes and then strip it to observe the
distribution of coarse aggregate
(any segregation will be easily seen)
Bleeding
 Bleeding, known also as water gain, is a form of

segregation in which some of the water in the mix
tends to rise to the surface of freshly placed
concrete. This is caused by the inability of the solid
constituents of the mix to hold all of the mixing
water when they settle downwards.
 Bleeding can be expressed quantitatively as the total

settlement (reduction in height) per unit height of
concrete upon stiffening of cement paste.
Bleeding
 Bleeding depends on:

1) The water content of the mix
2) The tendency to bleeding depends largely on the

properties of cement. Bleeding is lower with finer
cements and is also affected by certain chemical
factors: there is less bleeding when
 The cement has a high alkali content
 The cement has a high C3A content
 Calcium chloride is added
Bleeding
 Bleeding depends on (Continued):

3) Temperature, a higher temperature within the
normal range, increases the rate of bleeding but
the total bleeding capacity is probably unaffected
4) Rich mixes are less prone to bleeding than lean

ones, and a reduction in bleeding is obtained by
the addition of Pozzolans or of aluminum powder
5) Air entrainment effectively reduces bleeding so

that finishing can follow casting without delay .
Workability Tests
 Unfortunately, there is no acceptable test which will

measure directly the workability as defined early.
However, the following methods give a measure of
workability which is applicable only with reference to
the particular method. Workability could be
measured by means of a slump test, compaction
factor test, and V-B consistometer test
 The tests are:

1) Slump test 2) Compacting factor test
3) Vebe test 4) Flow table test
5) Ball penetration test (Kelly ball test)
Workability Tests
1) Slump Test: ASTM C143-78

1) The inside of the mould is moistened
2) Filled in three layers
3) Each is tamped 25 times
4) Standard 5/8 in diameter steel rod
5) Immediately after filling, cone is slowly lifted
6) The unsupported concrete will now slump
7) Slump: is the decrease in height (5 mm)
Workability Tests

Workability Tests

Workability Tests

Workability Tests
2) Compacting Factor Test:

1) Inverse approach (measure degree of
compaction achieved by a standard amount of
work)
2) Apparatus consists of two hoppers (shape of
frustum of a cone) and one cylinder. All being
above one another
3) The hoppers have hinged doors at the bottom
4) The upper hopper is filled with concrete
(placed gently, no work is done on concrete)
5) The bottom door of the hopper is then released
6) The concrete falls into the lower hopper
(smaller)
Workability Tests

7) The smaller hopper is filled to overflowing
8) The bottom door of the lower hopper is
released
9) The concrete falls into the cylinder and fills it
10) Determine the net mass of the concrete in the
known volume of the cylinder
11) The density of the concrete is calculated
(density of partially compacted concrete)
12) Density of fully compacted concrete (filling
cylinder, four layers, each tamped or vibrated)
Workability Tests

13) The compacting factor is the
ratio of the density of the
partially compacted concrete
to that of the fully compacted
concrete
Workability Tests
3) Vebe Test:
1) As shown in the figure, a standard slump cone
is placed in a 9.5" diameter and 8" high.
2) The slump cone is filled in the standard
manner, removed, and a disc-shaped rider
(6 lb) is placed on top of the concrete
3) Compaction is achieved using a vibrating table
4) Compaction is assumed to be complete when
the transparent rider is totally covered with
concrete and all cavities in the surface of the
concrete have disappeared (judged visually)
5) Workability is measured in Vebe Seconds
6) Good test for dry mixes
Workability Tests
3) Vebe Test:
Workability Tests
4) Flow Table Test:

1) More widespread in its use, particularly for
flowing concrete made with superplasticizing
admixtures
2) Apparatus consists essentially of a wooden
board covered by a steel plate with a total
mass of 35 lb.
3) The board is hinged along one side to a base
square board (27.6")
4) The upper board can be lifted up to a stop so
that the free edge rises 1.6“
5) Concrete is filled and tamped, then placed
Workability Tests
4) Flow Table Test:

6) After 30 seconds, mould is slowly removed
7) The table top is lifted and allowed to drop 15
times
8) Each cycle taking approximately 4 seconds
9) The concrete spreads
10) The maximum spread parallel to the edges of
the table is measured
11) The average of these two values (to the nearest
millimeter) represents the flow
12) 400: medium, 500: high workability
Workability Tests
4) Flow Table Test:

Workability Tests
5) Ball Penetration (Kelly Ball) Test:

1) A simple field test
2) Determination of the depth to which a 6"
diameter metal hemisphere, 30 lb, will sink
under its own weight into fresh concrete
3) Similar in use (an alternative) to slump test
Workability Tests
5) Ball Penetration (Kelly Ball) Test:

Comparison of Tests
Density (Unit Mass, Unit Wt.
in Air) of Fresh Concrete
 Let the masses per batch of water, cement, fine
aggregate, and coarse aggregate be, respectively, W,
C, Af, and Ac.
 Then, the volume of compacted concrete obtained
from one batch (or yield) is
C  Af  Ac  W
V 

 The cement content (wt. per unit volume of concrete)
C Af  Ac  W

V V
Quiz
Discuss the Applicability of the various

workability tests to concretes of different
levels of workability.
Chapter 7: Mixing, Handling,
Placing, & Compacting
 Introduction
 Mixers
 Charging the Mixer
 Uniformity of Mixing
 Mixing Time
 Prolonged Mixing
 Ready-Mix Concrete
 Handling
 Placing and Compacting
 Vibration of Concrete
Introduction
 The correct quantities of cement, aggregate, water,

and possibly also admixtures, are batched (put into
groups or lots) and mixed in a concrete mixer.
 This produces fresh concrete, which is transported

from the mixer to its final location.
 The fresh concrete is then placed in the forms, and

compacted so as to achieve a dense mass which is
allowed, and helped, to harden.
Mixers
 The mixing operation consists essentially of rotation

or stirring, the objective being:
 To coat the surface of all aggregate particles with
cement paste
 To blend all the ingredients of concrete into a
uniform mass, this uniformity must not be

disturbed by the process of discharging from the
mixer
 Types of mixers:
 Batch Mixers
 Continuous Mixers
Mixers
1) Batch Mixers:
 (the usual type of mixers), which means that one batch of
concrete is mixed and discharged before anymore
materials are put into the mixer.
 There are four types of batch mixers:
A) Tilting Drum Mixer
B) Non-Tilting Drum Mixer
C) Pan-Type Mixer
D) A Dual Drum Mixer
Mixers
A) Tilting Drum Mixer: is one whose drum in which

mixing takes place is tilted for discharging.
 The drum is conical or bowl-shaped with internal
vanes
 The discharge is rapid without segregation
 These mixers are suitable for mixes of low
workability and for those containing large-size

aggregate
Mixers
A) Tilting Drum Mixer:

Mixers
B) Non-Tilting Drum Mixer: is one in which the axis of

the mixer is always horizontal
 The discharge takes place by inserting a chute
(shaft, tube) into the drum or by reversing the

direction or rotation of the drum
 Because of a slow rate of discharge, some
segregation may occur

Mixers
B) Non-Tilting Drum Mixer:

Mixers
C) Pan-Type Mixer : is a forced-action mixer (similar in

action to an electric cake-mixer), as distinct from
drum mixers which rely on the free fall of concrete
inside the drum
 Pan mixers are particularly efficient with stiff and
cohesive mixes
 Therefore, often used for precast concrete, as
well as for mixing small quantities of concrete or

mortar in the laboratory
Mixers
C) Pan-Type Mixer:
Mixers
D) A Dual Drum Mixer: is sometimes used in highway

construction
 Here, there are two drums in series, concrete
being mixed part of the time in one and then

transferred to the other for the remainder of the
mixing time before discharging
Mixers
 It may be relevant to mention that in drum-type

mixers no scrapping of the sides takes place during
mixing so that a certain amount of mortar adheres to
the sides of the drum and remains until the mixer is
cleaned (means less mortar in the mix).
 To solve this problem:
 This initial batch is discarded
 As an alternative, a certain amount of mortar
(concrete with less coarse aggregate) may be

introduced into the drum prior to mixing the
concrete, a procedure known as buttering.
Mixers
 The size of a mixer is described by the volume of

concrete after compaction.
 Mixers are made in a variety of sizes from 0.04m3

(1.5 ft3) for laboratory use up to 13 m3 (17 yd3).
 Overloading the mixer by up to 10 percent is

generally harmless, but, if greater, a uniform mix will
not be obtained; this is very bad practice
Mixers
2) Continuous Mixers:
 (fed automatically by a continuous weigh-
batching system).
 The mixer itself may be of drum-type or may be
in the form of a screw moving in a stationary
housing
Charging the Mixer
 There are no general rules on the order of feeding

the ingredients into the mixer as this depends on the
properties of the mixer and of the mix.
 Usually:
 A small amount of water is fed first
 Solid materials, preferably fed uniformly and
simultaneously, while adding the rest of water

 Wait until full mixing is achieved
Charging the Mixer
 For dry mixes in drum mixers, it is necessary to feed

the coarse aggregate just after the small initial water
feed in order to ensure that the aggregate surface is
sufficiently wetted.
 Moreover, if coarse aggregate is absent to begin

with, the finer ingredients can become lodged (stuck
or blocked) in the head of the mixer
Uniformity of Mixing
 The mixture should be uniform. The efficiency of the

mixer can be measured by the variability of samples
from the mix.
 ASTM C 94-83 prescribes samples to be taken from
about points 1/6 and 5/6 of the discharge of a batch,
and the differences in the properties of the two
samples should not exceed any of the following:
 Density of concrete: 16 kg/m3 (1 lb/ft3)
 Air content: 1 percent
 Slump: 25 mm (1 in.) when average is less than
100 mm (4 in.) and 40 mm (1.5 in.) when average
is 100 to 150 mm (4 to 6 in.)

from the mix.
 Percentage of aggregate retained on 4.75 mm
(3/16 in.) sieve: 6 percent
 Density of air-free mortar: 1.6 percent
 Compressive strength (average 7- day value of 3
cylinders): 7.5 percent
 The sampling accuracy is assured by a limit on the

average range of pairs, and if two samples in pair
differ unduly (unjustifiably or improperly) then their
results are discarded.
 The mixer performance is judged by the difference
between the highest and lowest average of pairs for
each batch using three separate test batches; thus
one bad mixing operation does not condemn
(criticize or attack) a mixer
Mixing Time
 On site, there is often a tendency to mix concrete as

rapidly as possible. The optimum mixing time
depends on the:
 Type and size of mixer
 The speed of rotation
 The quality of blending of ingredients during
charging of the mixer
 A minimum time of 1 minute should be assured
so as to obtain a uniform mix (Table 7.1)
Mixing Time
Prolonged Mixing
 If mixing takes place over a long period, evaporation

of water from the mix can occur, with a consequent
decrease in workability and an increase in strength.
 A secondary effect is that of grinding of the
aggregate, particularly if soft: the grading thus
becomes finer and the workability lower
 Intermittent (irregular or discontinuous) remixing up
to 3 and 6 hours is harmless as far as strength and
durability are concerned, but workability decreases
unless the loss of moisture from the mixer is
prevented.
Prolonged Mixing
 Adding water to restore workability, known as re-

tempering, will possibly lower the strength and
increases shrinkage, but the effect depends on how
much the added water contributes to the effective
water/cement ratio of the concrete
Ready-Mix Concrete
 If instead of being batched and mixed on site;

concrete is delivered for placing from a central plant,
it is referred to as ready-mixed or pre-mixed concrete
 It is used extensively (widely) as it offers numerous
advantages in comparison with conventional
methods of manufacture:
1) Close quality control of batching which reduces
the variability of the desired properties of

hardened concrete
2) Use on congested (crowded) sites or in highway
construction where there is little space for a

mixing plant and aggregate stockpiles
Ready-Mix Concrete
3) Use of agitator (stirring or disturbing) trucks to

ensure care in transportation, thus preventing
segregation and maintaining workability
4) Convenience when small quantities of concrete or

intermittent placing is required
Ready-Mix Concrete
 Its cost may be somewhat higher than that of site-

mixed concrete
 There are two principal categories of ready-mixed
concrete:
1) Central-mixed
2) Transit-mixed or truck-mixed
 It should be explained that agitating differs from

mixing solely (exclusively or only) by the speed of
rotation of the mixer: the agitating speed between 2
and 6 rpm (revolutions per minutes), compared with
the mixing speed of 4 to 16 rpm (minimum of 7 rpm
as specified by BS 1926:1962)
Ready-Mix Concrete
Handling
 There are many methods of transporting concrete

from the mixer to the site and, in fact, one such
method was discussed in the previous section.
 Method choice depends on:
1) Economical considerations, and
2) The quantity of concrete to be transported
 The methods range from wheelbarrow, buckets,
skips, and belt conveyors to special trucks, and to
pumping
 But in all cases, the important requirement is that
the mix should remain cohesive and should not
segregate
 Bad handling methods must be avoided (Fig 7.1-
7.3)
Handling
Handling
Handling
Placing & Compacting
 The operations of placing and of compacting are

interdependent and are carried out almost
simultaneously
 They are most important for the purpose of
ensuring the requirements of strength,
impermeability, and durability of the hardened
concrete in the actual structure
 When placing is concerned, the main objective is
to deposit the concrete as close as possible to its
final position so that segregation is avoided and
the concrete can be fully compacted (see Figs 7.6
to 7.9 pages 134 to 136)
 To achieve this objective, the following rules

should be borne in mind:
a) hand shoveling and moving concrete by
immersion or poker vibrators should be avoided
b) the concrete should be placed in uniform layers,
not in large heaps or sloping layers
c) the thickness of a layer should be compatible
with the method of vibration so that entrapped
air can be removed from the bottom of each layer
d) the rates of placing and compaction should be
equal

e) where a good finish and uniform color are
required on columns and walls, the forms should
be filled at a rate of at least 2m (6ft) per hour,
avoiding delays (long delays can result in the
formation of cold joints)
f) each layer should be fully compacted before
placing the next one, and each subsequent layer
should be placed whilst (at the same time as) the
underlying layer is still plastic so that monolithic
(massive or huge) construction is achieved

g) collision between concrete and formwork or
reinforcement should be avoided. For deep
sections, a long down pipe ensures accuracy of
location of the concrete and minimum
segregation
h) concrete should be placed in a vertical plane
(vertically against the previously placed
concrete)
 Some of the techniques for placing concrete: slip-

forming, trémie (an apparatus for depositing and
consolidating concrete under water, essentially a
tube of wood. It is usually handled by a crane)
method, shotcreting, preplaced aggregate
concrete, and roller compacted concrete.
Vibration of Concrete
 The process of compacting concrete by vibration

consists essentially of the elimination of entrapped
air and forcing the particles into a closer
configuration
 Extremely dry and stiff mixes can be vibrated
satisfactorily so that, compared with compaction
by hand, a given desired strength can be achieved
with a lower cement content (saving in cost)
 Both compaction by hand and compaction by
vibration can produce good quality concrete, with
the right mix and workmanship
 For efficient compaction, the consistency of the

concrete and the characteristics of the available
vibrator have to be matched
 There are three basic methods of compacting
concrete by vibration:
a) internal vibrators (poker vibrator or immersion
vibrator)
b) external vibrator (both formwork and concrete
are vibrated)
c) vibrating tables (for precast concrete units,
ensure uniform vibration)
 Revibration (at 1 to 2 hours after placing increases

compressive strength by up to 15%, but the actual
values depend on the workability of the mix)
 Shotcrete (mortar or concrete conveyed through a
hose and pneumatically projected at high velocity
onto a backup surface) is used for thin lightly
reinforced sections, such as shells or folded plate
roofs, tunnel linings, and prestressed concrete
tanks
 Introduction
 Mixers
 Charging the Mixer
 Uniformity of Mixing
 Mixing Time
 Prolonged Mixing
 Ready-Mix Concrete
 Handling
 Placing and Compacting
 Vibration of Concrete
Introduction
 The correct quantities of cement, aggregate, water,

and possibly also admixtures, are batched (put into
groups or lots) and mixed in a concrete mixer.
 This produces fresh concrete, which is transported

from the mixer to its final location.
 The fresh concrete is then placed in the forms, and

compacted so as to achieve a dense mass which is
allowed, and helped, to harden.
Mixers
 The mixing operation consists essentially of rotation

or stirring, the objective being:
 To coat the surface of all aggregate particles with
cement paste
 To blend all the ingredients of concrete into a
uniform mass, this uniformity must not be

disturbed by the process of discharging from the
mixer
 Types of mixers:
 Batch Mixers
 Continuous Mixers
Mixers
1) Batch Mixers:
 (the usual type of mixers), which means that one batch of
concrete is mixed and discharged before anymore
materials are put into the mixer.
 There are four types of batch mixers:
A) Tilting Drum Mixer
B) Non-Tilting Drum Mixer
C) Pan-Type Mixer
D) A Dual Drum Mixer
Mixers
A) Tilting Drum Mixer: is one whose drum in which

mixing takes place is tilted for discharging.
 The drum is conical or bowl-shaped with internal
vanes
 The discharge is rapid without segregation
 These mixers are suitable for mixes of low
workability and for those containing large-size

aggregate
Mixers
A) Tilting Drum Mixer:

Mixers
B) Non-Tilting Drum Mixer: is one in which the axis of

the mixer is always horizontal
 The discharge takes place by inserting a chute
(shaft, tube) into the drum or by reversing the

direction or rotation of the drum
 Because of a slow rate of discharge, some
segregation may occur

Mixers
B) Non-Tilting Drum Mixer:

Mixers
C) Pan-Type Mixer : is a forced-action mixer (similar in

action to an electric cake-mixer), as distinct from
drum mixers which rely on the free fall of concrete
inside the drum
 Pan mixers are particularly efficient with stiff and
cohesive mixes
 Therefore, often used for precast concrete, as
well as for mixing small quantities of concrete or

mortar in the laboratory
Mixers
C) Pan-Type Mixer:
Mixers
D) A Dual Drum Mixer: is sometimes used in highway

construction
 Here, there are two drums in series, concrete
being mixed part of the time in one and then

transferred to the other for the remainder of the
mixing time before discharging
Mixers
 It may be relevant to mention that in drum-type

mixers no scrapping of the sides takes place during
mixing so that a certain amount of mortar adheres to
the sides of the drum and remains until the mixer is
cleaned (means less mortar in the mix).
 To solve this problem:
 This initial batch is discarded
 As an alternative, a certain amount of mortar
(concrete with less coarse aggregate) may be

introduced into the drum prior to mixing the
concrete, a procedure known as buttering.
Mixers
 The size of a mixer is described by the volume of

concrete after compaction.
 Mixers are made in a variety of sizes from 0.04m3

(1.5 ft3) for laboratory use up to 13 m3 (17 yd3).
 Overloading the mixer by up to 10 percent is

generally harmless, but, if greater, a uniform mix will
not be obtained; this is very bad practice
Mixers
2) Continuous Mixers:
 (fed automatically by a continuous weigh-
batching system).
 The mixer itself may be of drum-type or may be
in the form of a screw moving in a stationary
housing
Charging the Mixer
 There are no general rules on the order of feeding

the ingredients into the mixer as this depends on the
properties of the mixer and of the mix.
 Usually:
 A small amount of water is fed first
 Solid materials, preferably fed uniformly and
simultaneously, while adding the rest of water

 Wait until full mixing is achieved
Charging the Mixer
 For dry mixes in drum mixers, it is necessary to feed

the coarse aggregate just after the small initial water
feed in order to ensure that the aggregate surface is
sufficiently wetted.
 Moreover, if coarse aggregate is absent to begin

with, the finer ingredients can become lodged (stuck
or blocked) in the head of the mixer

from the mix.
 Density of concrete: 16 kg/m3 (1 lb/ft3)
 Air content: 1 percent
 Slump: 25 mm (1 in.) when average is less than
100 mm (4 in.) and 40 mm (1.5 in.) when average
is 100 to 150 mm (4 to 6 in.)

from the mix.
 Percentage of aggregate retained on 4.75 mm
(3/16 in.) sieve: 6 percent
 Density of air-free mortar: 1.6 percent
 Compressive strength (average 7- day value of 3
cylinders): 7.5 percent
 The sampling accuracy is assured by a limit on the

average range of pairs, and if two samples in pair
differ unduly (unjustifiably or improperly) then their
results are discarded.
 The mixer performance is judged by the difference
between the highest and lowest average of pairs for
each batch using three separate test batches; thus
one bad mixing operation does not condemn
(criticize or attack) a mixer
Mixing Time
 On site, there is often a tendency to mix concrete as

rapidly as possible. The optimum mixing time
depends on the:
 Type and size of mixer
 The speed of rotation
 The quality of blending of ingredients during
charging of the mixer
 A minimum time of 1 minute should be assured
so as to obtain a uniform mix (Table 7.1)
Mixing Time
Prolonged Mixing
 If mixing takes place over a long period, evaporation

of water from the mix can occur, with a consequent
decrease in workability and an increase in strength.
 A secondary effect is that of grinding of the
aggregate, particularly if soft: the grading thus
becomes finer and the workability lower
 Intermittent (irregular or discontinuous) remixing up
to 3 and 6 hours is harmless as far as strength and
durability are concerned, but workability decreases
unless the loss of moisture from the mixer is
prevented.
Prolonged Mixing
 Adding water to restore workability, known as re-

tempering, will possibly lower the strength and
increases shrinkage, but the effect depends on how
much the added water contributes to the effective
water/cement ratio of the concrete
Ready-Mix Concrete
 If instead of being batched and mixed on site;

concrete is delivered for placing from a central plant,
it is referred to as ready-mixed or pre-mixed concrete
 It is used extensively (widely) as it offers numerous
advantages in comparison with conventional
methods of manufacture:
1) Close quality control of batching which reduces
the variability of the desired properties of

hardened concrete
2) Use on congested (crowded) sites or in highway
construction where there is little space for a

mixing plant and aggregate stockpiles
Ready-Mix Concrete
3) Use of agitator (stirring or disturbing) trucks to

ensure care in transportation, thus preventing
segregation and maintaining workability
4) Convenience when small quantities of concrete or

intermittent placing is required
Ready-Mix Concrete
 Its cost may be somewhat higher than that of site-

mixed concrete
 There are two principal categories of ready-mixed
concrete:
1) Central-mixed
2) Transit-mixed or truck-mixed
 It should be explained that agitating differs from

mixing solely (exclusively or only) by the speed of
rotation of the mixer: the agitating speed between 2
and 6 rpm (revolutions per minutes), compared with
the mixing speed of 4 to 16 rpm (minimum of 7 rpm
as specified by BS 1926:1962)
Ready-Mix Concrete
Handling
 There are many methods of transporting concrete

from the mixer to the site and, in fact, one such
method was discussed in the previous section.
 Method choice depends on:
1) Economical considerations, and
2) The quantity of concrete to be transported
 The methods range from wheelbarrow, buckets,
skips, and belt conveyors to special trucks, and to
pumping
 But in all cases, the important requirement is that
the mix should remain cohesive and should not
segregate
 Bad handling methods must be avoided (Fig 7.1-
7.3)
Handling
Handling
Handling
 The operations of placing and of compacting are

interdependent and are carried out almost
simultaneously
 They are most important for the purpose of
ensuring the requirements of strength,
impermeability, and durability of the hardened
concrete in the actual structure
 When placing is concerned, the main objective is
to deposit the concrete as close as possible to its
final position so that segregation is avoided and
the concrete can be fully compacted (see Figs 7.6
to 7.9 pages 134 to 136)

a) hand shoveling and moving concrete by
immersion or poker vibrators should be avoided
b) the concrete should be placed in uniform layers,
not in large heaps or sloping layers
c) the thickness of a layer should be compatible
with the method of vibration so that entrapped
air can be removed from the bottom of each layer
d) the rates of placing and compaction should be
equal

e) where a good finish and uniform color are
required on columns and walls, the forms should
be filled at a rate of at least 2m (6ft) per hour,
avoiding delays (long delays can result in the
formation of cold joints)
f) each layer should be fully compacted before
placing the next one, and each subsequent layer
should be placed whilst (at the same time as) the
underlying layer is still plastic so that monolithic
(massive or huge) construction is achieved

g) collision between concrete and formwork or
reinforcement should be avoided. For deep
sections, a long down pipe ensures accuracy of
location of the concrete and minimum
segregation
h) concrete should be placed in a vertical plane
(vertically against the previously placed
concrete)
 Some of the techniques for placing concrete: slip-

forming, trémie (an apparatus for depositing and
consolidating concrete under water, essentially a
tube of wood. It is usually handled by a crane)
method, shotcreting, preplaced aggregate
concrete, and roller compacted concrete.
 The process of compacting concrete by vibration

consists essentially of the elimination of entrapped
air and forcing the particles into a closer
configuration
 Extremely dry and stiff mixes can be vibrated
satisfactorily so that, compared with compaction
by hand, a given desired strength can be achieved
with a lower cement content (saving in cost)
 Both compaction by hand and compaction by
vibration can produce good quality concrete, with
the right mix and workmanship
 For efficient compaction, the consistency of the

concrete and the characteristics of the available
vibrator have to be matched
 There are three basic methods of compacting
concrete by vibration:
a) internal vibrators (poker vibrator or immersion
vibrator)
b) external vibrator (both formwork and concrete
are vibrated)
c) vibrating tables (for precast concrete units,
ensure uniform vibration)
 Revibration (at 1 to 2 hours after placing increases

compressive strength by up to 15%, but the actual
values depend on the workability of the mix)
 Shotcrete (mortar or concrete conveyed through a
hose and pneumatically projected at high velocity
onto a backup surface) is used for thin lightly
reinforced sections, such as shells or folded plate
roofs, tunnel linings, and prestressed concrete
tanks
(805261)
Chapter 8: Admixtures
 Introduction
 Classifications by Function
Introduction
 Admixtures are ingredients added to the concrete

other than Portland cement, water, and aggregate.
 They can be added before or during the concrete

mixing.
Classification by Function:
 Admixtures can be classified by function as:

A. Air entraining
B. Water content (water reducing) (Plasticizers)
C. Retarding
D. Accelerating
E. Pozzolan
F. Workability agents inducing super plasticizers
G. Miscellaneous agents as bonding, permeability
reducing
A. Air Entraining
 Entrained air in concrete is defined as air

intentionally incorporated using a suitable agent.
 Air entraining admixtures are used to purposely
entrain microscopic air bubbles in concrete
 Advantages:
1. Entrained air bubbles dramatically improve the
durability of concrete exposed to moisture and
freezing and thawing cycles
2. Durability of concrete freshly mixed is also
improved significantly and segregation and
bleeding are reduced or eliminated
A. Air Entraining
 The tiny air bubbles are distributed uniformly

throughout the cement paste
 Entrained air can be produced by use of air

entraining cement, or by introduction of an air
entraining admixtures, or a combination of both
methods
 Primary active ingredient used in air entraining

admixture is alkybenzene sulforiate or polythene
oxide, detergents, salts, or fatty acids
B. Water-reducing Admixtures:
(Plasticizers)
 These admixtures are used for three purposes:
1. To achieve higher strength by reducing the W/C
ratio at the same workability as an admixture-
free mix
2. Achieve the same workability by decreasing the

cement content so as to reduce the heat of
hydration in mass concrete
(Plasticizers)
 These admixtures are used for three purposes:
3. Increase workability so as to ease placing in
inaccessible locations (a mix containing this
admixture and another normal mix with same
W/C ratio will vary in workability at which the
first mix with the admixture will be more
workable)
(Plasticizers)
 Many water-reducing admixtures can also retard
the setting time of the concrete
 The reduction in the mixing water, which is
possible due to the use of the admixture, varies
between 5-15%
 The actual decrease in mixing water depends on
the:
1. Cement contents
2. Aggregate type
3. Pozzolan
4. Type of air entraining agent present
(Plasticizers)
 Types of water reducing admixture:
a) Hydroxylated carboxylic acids, disadvantages
are:
- it can increase bleeding in high workability
concrete
- it tends to retard setting time (as an accelerator
is added)
b) Lignosulphonic Acid: improves cohesiveness
because they contain air
C. Retarding Admixtures:
 They are used in hot weather in order to retard the

rate of setting time in order not to harden so fast
(slow the chemical reaction), the higher the
temperature the faster the hydration
 The retarding admixture is a material used to

retard the setting of the concrete
 High temperature of 30-32C and higher are often

the cause of an increase rate of hardening that
makes placing and finishing difficult
 Retarders are sometimes used to:

1. Offset (balance) the accelerating effect of hot
weather on the concrete setting
2. Delay the initial set of concrete when difficult or
unusually conditions of placement occur, such
as making concrete in large piers or foundations
 Most retarders are also water reducing agents;

they are frequently called water‑reducing-retarders
 Types of retarders are:

 Sugar,
 carbohydrate derivatives,
 soluble zinc salts,
 soluble borates
 About 0.05% of sugar by mass of cement will delay

the setting time by 4 hours
 Disadvantages:
1. In general, some reduction in strength at early
ages (1-3 days) accompanies the use of retarders
2. The effect of these materials on other properties
of concrete, such as plastic shrinkage may not
be
predictable
 Performance of sugar or any other retarder should

be determined by trial mixes with the actual job
material under anticipated job conditions
D. Accelerating Admixtures:
 Other ways that the strength development can be

accelerated are:
1. Type III of cement, high early strength Portland
cement (PC)
2. Curing at higher temperature (steam curing)
3. Lowering water cement ratio by increasing the
cement content
 An over dose can result in:

1. Placement problems
2. Rapid stiffening
3. Increasing drying shrinkage
4. Corrode reinforcement
5. Cause loss in strength at later ages
 The use of calcium chloride reduces the resistance

of cement to sulfate attack.
 They are used to accelerate the strength

development of concrete in early age; under most
conditions the accelerators cause an increase in
the drying shrink age of concrete
 Calcium chloride is the agent or the active material

that is most commonly used, CaCl2 should be
added in solution form as part of the mixing water.
CaCl2 should not exceed more than 2% of the
weight of cement
 Use of CaCl2 or accelerating admixtures containing

CaCl2 is not recommended under the following
conditions:
1) Pre-stressed concrete because of possible
corrosion hazards
2) Concrete containing embedded alumina
3) In concrete subjected to alkali aggregate
reaction or exposed to soils or water containing
sulfates
4) Nuclear shielding concrete
5) Hot weather
E. Pozzolans:
 Pozzolans are sometimes used in concrete to help

reducing the internal temperature (used in dams).
These temperatures can also be lowered (reduced)
by:
1. Using Type II, IV, and V cement
2. Lowering temperature of water or aggregate
3. Using Pozzolanic admixtures
 Some Pozzolan improves the sulfate resistance of

concrete
F. Superplasticizer:
 More recent and more effective types of water

reducing admixture and known as high-range
water reducers.
 Advantages:
The possible undesirable effects are considerably
lower than those of the conventional water
reducers
 The main situation where we would use

superplasticizers:
1. Following concrete produced at normal W/C
ratio but so workable that it can be placed with
little or no vibration or compaction and still be
free of excessive bleeding water or segregation
2. High strength concrete: produced at a very low
W/C ratio and with workability in the normal
range
 Two types of superplasticizers:

1. Sulphonated melamine
2. Sulphonated naphthalene
 When the aim is to achieve high strength at a given

workability, the use of superplasticizers can result
in a water reduction of 25-35%
 The improved workability produced by

superplasticizers is of short duration (30-90 min.)
and is followed by a rapid loss in workability. For
this reason, superplasticizers should be added to
the mix immediately prior to placing and it should
be mixed very well
 The only disadvantage of the superplasticizers is

cost (very expensive)
G. Bonding Admixture:
 These are polymer emulsions (Latexes) such as

rubber, polyvinyl chloride, polyvinyl acetate, and
acrylics
 These are added to Portland cement mixtures or
applied to the surface of old concrete to increase
the bond strength between old and new concrete
 They are usually added in proportions equivalent
to 5%-20% to the weight of cement, depending on:
a) Job condition
b) Type of bonding material used

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Materials of Construction

Chapter 3: Normal Aggregate

 Approximately, 75% of the concrete volume is

 Inexpensive material dispersed through the cement

 The following aggregate properties depend on the

 Other properties of the aggregate which are absent

 All the above properties, specially the last two, may

 Concrete is made with aggregate particles covering

 The particle size distribution among various sizes.

 The particle size distribution is called grading

 Low-grade concrete may be made with aggregate

 The alternative (very much more common and

 The main sieve that divides between fine aggregate

 Sand is generally considered to have a lower size

 Material between 0.06 mm (0.002 in) and 0.02 mm

 Loam is soft deposit consisting of sand, silt, and

 Reasons for specifying grading limits and maximum

 Very fine aggregate are often uneconomically, very

 Aggregate particles with high ratio of surface area to

 Those kinds are the elongated (length is large

 The particle is considered flaky if its thickness (least

 The particle is considered elongated if its length

Mass of flaky particles

Mass of elongated particles

 The standard sieves consist of a series in which the

 The standard sieves are:

 Physical, thermal, and sometimes the chemical

 Surface texture depends on:

 Surface texture has a strong influence on the

 A rougher texture results in a greater adhesion or

 The larger surface area of a more angular aggregate

 The determination of the quality of bond is rather

 Aggregate of moderate or low strength and modulus

 Usually, larger sizes of aggregate achieve a higher

- In general, the ACV is greater for a lower

 The aggregate abrasion value of the bulk aggregate

 The sample is subjected to abrasion in a standard

 The Los Angeles test can also be performed on

Figure 3.1: Schematic representation of moisture in aggregate

 The range of porosity of common rocks varies from

SSD coarse aggregate

SSD condition fine

 Absolute specific gravity: refers to the volume of

 Apparent specific gravity (ASG): refers to the

 Bulk specific gravity refers to the volume of the solid material

 Calculations with reference to concrete are generally

wire mesh basket test

 Two ways of testing:

 The voids ratio indicates the volume of mortar

 The maximum bulk density of a mixture of fine and

 The process of dividing a sample of aggregate into

 Its purpose is to determine the grading or size

 A sample of air-dried aggregate is graded by shaking

 It should be remembered that 5mm (3/16 in) (No.4

 The results of a sieve analysis can be reported in a

 Grading affects workability but not strength

 The grading curve is plotted on a grading chart,

 The sum of the cumulative percentages retained on

 If all particles in a sample are coarser than, say,