Electronic Devices & Circuit

For AKTU & Other Technical

University

By: Er Rahul Agarwal

(Assistant Professor)
RAJA BALWANT SINGH ENGINEERING TECHNICAL CAMPUS
[email protected]

Chap 2 - 1
 Chapter Goals
• Characterize resistivity of insulators, semiconductors, and conductors.
• Develop covalent bond and energy band models for semiconductors.
• Understand band gap energy and intrinsic carrier concentration.
• Explore the behavior of electrons and holes in semiconductors.
• Discuss acceptor and donor impurities in semiconductors.
• Learn to control the electron and hole populations using impurity
doping.
• Understand drift and diffusion currents in semiconductors.
• Explore low-field mobility and velocity saturation.
• Discuss the dependence of mobility on doping level.

Chap 2 - 2
 Solid-State Electronic Materials
• Electronic materials fall into three categories (WRT resistivity):
– Insulators  > 105 -cm (diamond  = 1016 )
– Semiconductors 10-3 <  < 105 -cm
– Conductors  < 10-3 -cm (copper  = 10-6 )
• Elemental semiconductors are formed from a single type of atom
of column IV, typically Silicon.
• Compound semiconductors are formed from combinations of
elements of column III and V or columns II and VI.
• Germanium was used in many early devices.
• Silicon quickly replaced germanium due to its higher bandgap
energy, lower cost, and ability to be easily oxidized to form
silicon-dioxide insulating layers.

Chap 2 - 3
 Solid-State Electronic Materials (cont)
• Bandgap is an energy range in a solid where no electron
states can exist. It refers to the energy difference between the
top of the valence band and the bottom of the
conduction band in insulators and semiconductors

Chap 2 - 4
 Semiconductor Materials (cont.)
Bandgap
Semiconductor Energy EG (eV)

Carbon (diamond) 5.47

Silicon 1.12
Germanium 0.66
Tin 0.082
Gallium arsenide 1.42
Gallium nitride 3.49
Indium phosphide 1.35

Boron nitride 7.50

Silicon carbide 3.26
Cadmium selenide 1.70
Chap 2 - 5
 Energy Bands in Metals
Density of states Fermi-Dirac function

g ( E )  4 (2me )3 / 2 h 3 E1/ 2  AE1/ 2 1

f (E) 
 E  EF 
1  exp 
 k BT 

EF 
n g ( E ) f ( E )dE
0

2/3
 h  3n 
2
EFO    
 8me   
Chap 2 - 6
 Semiconductor Statistics

(a) Energy band diagram.

(b) Density of states (number of states per unit energy per unit volume).
(c) Fermi-Dirac probability function (probability of occupancy of a state).
(d) The product of g(E) and f (E) is the energy density of electrons in the CB (number of electrons per unit
energy per unit volume). The area under nE(E) versus E is the electron concentration.

12/02/2020 7
 Covalent Bond Model
• Silicon has four electrons in the outer shell.
• Single crystal material is formed by the covalent bonding of each
silicon atom with its four nearest neighbors.

Silicon diamond lattice unit Corner of diamond lattice View of crystal

cell. showing four nearest lattice along a crystallographic
neighbor bonding. axis.

Chap 2 - 8
Silicon Covalent Bond Model (cont.)

Covalent bond

Silicon atom Silicon atom

Chap 2 - 9
Silicon Covalent Bond Model (cont.)

Silicon atom Covalent bonds in silicon

Chap 2 - 10
 Silicon Covalent Bond Model (cont.)

• What happens as the temperature increases?

• Near absolute zero, all bonds are complete

• Each Si atom contributes one electron to
each of the four bond pairs
• The outer shell is full, no free electrons,
silicon crystal is an insulator

Chap 2 - 11
 Silicon Covalent Bond Model (cont.)

• Near absolute zero, all bonds are complete • Increasing temperature adds energy to the
• Each Si atom contributes one electron to system and breaks bonds in the lattice,
each of the four bond pairs generating electron-hole pairs.
• The outer shell is full, no free electrons, • The pairs move within the matter forming
silicon crystal is an insulator semiconductor
• Some of the electrons can fall into the holes
– recombination.
Chap 2 - 12
 Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

• The density of carriers in a semiconductor as a function of temperature

and material properties is:
 EG 
n  BT exp  
2
i
3
 cm -6
 kT 
• EG = semiconductor bandgap energy in eV (electron volts)
• k = Boltzmann’s constant, 8.62 x 10-5 eV/K
• T = absolute termperature, K
• B = material-dependent parameter, 1.08 x 1031 K-3 cm-6 for Si
BandgAP energy is the minimum energy needed to free an electron by
breaking a covalent bond in the semiconductor crystal.

Chap 2 - 13
 Intrinsic Carrier Concentration (cont.)

• Electron density is n
(electrons/cm3) and for
intrinsic material n = ni.
• Intrinsic refers to
properties of pure

Intrinsic carrier density (cm-3)

materials.
• ni ≈ 1010 cm-3 for Si
• The density of silicon
atoms is na ≈ 5x1022 cm-3
• Thus at a room
temperature one bond per
about 1013 is broken

Chap 2 - 14
 Mass Action Law

 Eg 
np  n  N c N v exp 
2
i 
 k BT 
ni = intrinsic concentration
The np product is a “constant”, ni2, that depends on the material properties Nc, Nv,
Eg, and the temperature. If somehow n is increased (e.g. by doping), p must
decrease to keep np constant.

Mass action law applies

in thermal equilibrium
and
in the dark (no illumination)
Chap 2 - 15
 Electron-hole concentrations
• A vacancy is left when a covalent bond is broken.
• The vacancy is called a hole.
• A hole moves when the vacancy is filled by an electron from
a nearby broken bond (hole current).
• The electron density is n (ni for intrinsic material)
• Hole density is represented by p.
• For intrinsic silicon, n = ni = p.
• The product of electron and hole concentrations is pn = ni2.
• The pn product above holds when a semiconductor is in
thermal equilibrium (not with an external voltage applied).

Chap 2 - 16
 Electron Concentration in CB

 ( Ec  E F ) 
n  N c exp   
 k B T 
n = Electron concentration in the CB
Nc = Effective density of states at the CB edge
Ec = Conduction band edge, EF = Fermi energy
kB = Boltzmann constant, T = Temperature (K)

Effective Density of States at CB Edge

3/ 2
 2m k T 
*
N c  2 
e B
2
 h 
Nc = Effective density of states at the CB edge, me* = Effective mass of the electron
in the CB, k = Boltzmann constant, T = Temperature, h = Planck’s constant
Chap 2 - 17
 Hole Concentration in VB

 ( E F  Ev ) 
p  N v exp   
 k BT 
p = Hole concentration in the VB
Nv = Effective density of states at the VB edge
Ev = Valence band edge, EF = Fermi energy
kB = Boltzmann constant, , T = Temperature (K)
Effective Density of States at VB Edge
3/ 2
 2m k T  *
N v  2  h B
2
 h 
Nv = Effective density of states at the VB edge, mh* = Effective mass of a hole in
the VB, k = Boltzmann constant, T = Temperature, h = Planck’s constant
Chap 2 - 18
 Electron Concentration in CB

Ec  
n gCB ( E ) f ( E )dE
Ec

gCB ( E )  4 (2me )3 / 2 h 3 ( E  Ec )1 / 2  E  EF 
f ( E )  exp  
 k BT 
 A( E  Ec )1 / 2
Fermi-Dirac function 
Density of states in the CB
Boltzmann function

 ( Ec  E F ) 
n  N c exp   
 k BT 

Chap 2 - 19
 Average Electron Energy in CB
Average is found from

 Eg ( E ) f ( E )dE 3
E CB  E c  k BT
CB
Ec
ECB  
 g CB ( E ) f ( E )dE
Ec
2
E CB = Average energy of electrons in the CB, Ec = Conduction band
edge, kB = Boltzmann constant, T = Temperature
(3/2)kBT is also the average kinetic energy per atom in a monatomic
gas (kinetic molecular theory) in which the gas atoms move around
freely and randomly inside a container.
The electron in the CB behaves as if it were “free” with a mean
kinetic energy that is (3/2)kBT and an effective mass me*.

Chap 2 - 20
 Drift Current

• Charged particles move or drift under the influence of the applied field.
• The resulting current is called drift current.
• Electrical resistivity  and its reciprocal, conductivity , characterize current
flow in a material when an electric field is applied.
• Drift current density is
j = Qv [(C/cm3)(cm/s) = A/cm2]
j = current density, (Coulomb charge moving through a unit area)
Q = charge density, (Charge in a unit volume)
v = velocity of charge in an electric field.

Note that “density” may mean area or volumetric density, depending on the context.

Chap 2 - 21
 Mobility
• At low fields, carrier drift velocity v (cm/s) is proportional
to electric field E (V/cm). The constant of proportionality
is the mobility, :
• vn = - nE and vp = pE , where
• vn and vp - electron and hole velocity (cm/s),
• n and p - electron and hole mobility (cm2/Vs)

• n ≈ 1350 (cm2/Vs), p ≈ 500 (cm2/Vs),

• Hole mobility is less than electron since hole current is the
result of multiple covalent bond disruptions, while
electrons can move freely about the crystal.

Chap 2 - 22
 Intrinsic Silicon Resistivity
• Given drift current and mobility, we can calculate
resistivity (Q is the charge density) :
jndrift = Qnvn = (-qn)(- nE) = qn nE A/cm2
jpdrift = Qpvp = (+qp)(+ pE) = qp pE A/cm2

jTdrift = jn + jp = q(n n + p p)E = E

This defines electrical conductivity:

 = q(n n + p p) (cm)-1

Resistivity  is the reciprocal of conductivity:

 E V /cm 
      cm
 = 1/ (cm)  jdrift
T A /cm 2 

Chap 2 - 23
 Example: Calculate the resistivity of
intrinsic silicon
Problem: Find the resistivity of intrinsic silicon at room temperature and
classify it as an insulator, semiconductor, or conductor.

Solution:
• Known Information and Given Data: The room temperature motilities. For intrinsic
silicon, the electron and hole densities are both equal to ni.
• Unknowns: Resistivity  and classification.
• Assumptions: assume “room temperature” with ni = 1010/cm3.

• Analysis: Charge density of electrons is Qn = -qni and for holes is Qp = +qni. Thus:

 = (1.60 x 10-10)[(1010)(1350) + (1010)(500)] (C)(cm-3)(cm2/Vs)

 = q(n n + p p)
= 2.96 x 10-6 (cm)-1 --->  = 1/ = 3.38 x 105 cm

Recalling the classification in the beginning, intrinsic silicon is near the low end of the
insulator resistivity range

• Conclusions: Resistivity has been found, and intrinsic silicon is a poor insulator.

Chap 2 - 24
 Semiconductor Doping
• The interesting properties of semiconductors emerges
when impurities are introduced.

• Doping is the process of adding very small well controlled

amounts of impurities into a semiconductor.

• Doping enables the control of the resistivity and other

properties over a wide range of values.

• For silicon, impurities are from columns III and V of the

periodic table.

Chap 2 - 25
 Donor Impurities in Silicon

q

q e
• Phosphorous (or other column V
element) atom replaces silicon atom
in crystal lattice.
• Since phosphorous has five outer
shell electrons, there is now an ‘extra’
electron in the structure.
• Material is still charge neutral, but
very little energy is required to free A silicon crystal doped by a pentavalent element
the electron for conduction since it is (f. i. phosphorus). Each dopant atom donates a free
not participating in a bond. electron and is thus called a donor. The doped
semiconductor becomes n type.

Chap 2 - 26
 Acceptor Impurities in Silicon

• Boron (column III element) has been q

added to silicon. e
• There is now an incomplete bond
pair, creating a vacancy for an
Vacancy
electron. q
• Little energy is required to move a
nearby electron into the vacancy.
A silicon crystal doped with a trivalent impurity (f.i.
• As the ‘hole’ propagates, charge is
boron). Each dopant atom gives rise to a hole, and the
moved across the silicon. semiconductor becomes p type.

Chap 2 - 27
Acceptor Impurities – Hole propagation

Hole is propagating through the silicon.

Chap 2 - 28
Acceptor Impurities – Hole propagation

Hole

Hole is propagating through the silicon.

Chap 2 - 29
Acceptor Impurities – Hole propagation

Hole

Hole is propagating through the silicon.

Chap 2 - 30
Acceptor Impurities – Hole propagation

Hole is propagating through the silicon.

Chap 2 - 31
 Doped Silicon Carrier Concentrations
(how to calculate)
• In doped material, the electron and hole concentrations are no longer equal.
• If n > p, the material is n-type.
If p > n, the material is p-type.
• The carrier with the largest concentration is the majority carrier, the smaller is
the minority carrier.
• ND = donor impurity concentration
NA = acceptor impurity concentration atoms/cm 3
• Charge neutrality requires q(ND + p - NA - n) = 0:
positive charge: p (holes) + ND (ionized donors)
negative charge: n (electrons) + NA (ionized acceptors)
• It can also be shown that pn = ni2, even for doped semiconductors in thermal
equilibrium.
Explanation. The rate of e/h recombination is Cnp (kind of a number of possibilities of each electron to
recombine with each hole). At the thermal equilibrium, rate of e/h recombination is equal to the rate of e/h
pairs creation, thus np is the constant for certain temperature.
Since creation recombination is the thermal process (depends on temperature, not doping), np should be
the same as for intrinsic material, so np = ni pi = ni2.

Chap 2 - 32
 n-type Material
• Substituting p = ni2/n into q(ND + p - NA - n) = 0
yields n2 - (ND - NA)n - ni2 = 0.

• Solving for n

(N D  N A )  (N D  N A ) 2  4n i2 n i2
n and p 
2 n

• For (ND - NA) >> 2ni, n  (ND - NA) .



Chap 2 - 33
 p-type Material
• Similar to the approach used with n-type material we find
the following equations:

(N A  N D )  (N A  N D ) 2  4n i2 n i2
p and n 
2 p
• For (NA - ND) >> 2ni, p  (NA - ND) .

 • We find the majority carrier concentration from charge

neutrality and find the minority carrier concentration from
the thermal equilibrium relationship.

Chap 2 - 34
 Practical Doping Levels

• Majority carrier concentrations are established at

manufacturing time and are independent of temperature
(over practical temp. ranges).

• However, minority carrier concentrations are proportional

to ni2, a highly temperature dependent term.

• For practical doping levels:

n  (ND - NA) for n-type material
p  (NA - ND) for p-type material.

• Typical doping ranges are 1014/cm3 to 1021/cm3.

Chap 2 - 35
Mobility and Resistivity in
Doped Semiconductors

• Impurities degrade mobility

(different size disrupt the lattice,
atoms ionized – electrons
scatter ) – see on the left.
• However, doping vastly increases
the density of majority carriers
 dramatically decreases
resistivity despite the lower
mobility.
•  = qn (ND – NA) for n-type
•  = qp (NA – ND) for p-type

Chap 2 - 36
 Diffusion Current
• In practical semiconductors, it is quite useful to create
carrier concentration gradients by varying the dopant
concentration and/or the dopant type across a region of
semiconductor.

• This gives rise to a diffusion current resulting from the

natural tendency of carriers to move from high
concentration regions to low concentration regions.

• Diffusion current is analogous to a gas moving across a

room to evenly distribute itself across the volume.

Chap 2 - 37
 Diffusion Current (cont.)

A bar of silicon (a) into which holes are injected, thus If the electrons are injected and the electron-
creating the hole concentration profile along the x concentration profile shown is established in
axis, shown in (b). The holes diffuse in the positive a bar of silicon, electrons diffuse in the x
direction of x and give rise to a hole-diffusion current direction, giving rise to an electron-diffusion
in the same direction. current in the negative -x direction.

Chap 2 - 38
 Diffusion Current (cont.)

• Carriers move toward regions of

lower concentration, so diffusion
current densities are proportional
to the negative of the carrier
gradient.
 p  p
j diff
p  ( q ) D p      qD p A/cm 2
 x  x
 n  n
jndiff  ( q ) Dn      qDn A/cm 2
 x  x Diffusion currents in the
presence of a concentration
Diffusion current density equations gradient.

Chap 2 - 39
 Diffusion Current (cont.)
• Dp and Dn are the hole and electron diffusivities with units
cm2/s. Diffusivity and mobility are related by Einsteins’s
relationship:

Dn kT D p
   VT  Thermal voltage
n q p
Dn   n VT , D p   p VT

• The thermal voltage, VT = kT/q, is approximately 25 mV


at room temperature. We will encounter VT many times
throughout this course.

Chap 2 - 40
 Total Current in a Semiconductor
• Total current is the sum of drift and diffusion current:
n
j  q n nE  qDn
T

x
n

p
j p  q  p pE  qD p
T

x
Rewriting using Einstein’s relationship (Dp = nVT),

 1 n
j  q n n  E  VT
T
 In the following sections, we will use
nx
n
 these equations, combined with
Gauss’ law, (E)=Q, to calculate
 1  p currents in a variety of
j  q  p p  E  VT
T
 semiconductor devices.
p x
p

Chap 2 - 41
 Semiconductor Energy Band Model

Semiconductor energy Electron participating in Thermal energy breaks

band model. EC and EV a covalent bond is in a covalent bonds and
lower energy state in the moves the electrons up
are energy levels at the
valence band. This into the conduction
edge of the conduction
diagram represents 0 K. band.
and valence bands.

Chap 2 - 42
 Energy Band Model for a Doped
Semiconductor

Semiconductor with donor or n-type Semiconductor with acceptor or p-type

dopants. The donor atoms have free dopants. The aaacceptor atoms have
electrons with energy ED. Since ED is unfilled covalent bonds with energy
close to EC, (about 0.045 eV for state EA. Since EA is close to EV, (about
phosphorous), it is easy for electrons 0.044 eV for boron), it is easy for
in an n-type material to move up into electrons in the valence band to move
the conduction band and create up into the acceptor sites and complete
negative charge carriers. covalent bond pairs, and create holes –
positive charge carriers.
Chap 2 - 43
 Semiconductor energy band diagrams

Intrinsic, i-Si n-type p-type

n = p = ni n = Nd p = Na
p = ni2/Nd n = ni2/Na
np = ni2 np = ni2

12/02/2020 44
 CARRIER CONCENTRATIONS IN
SEMICONDUCTORS

• Donors and Acceptors

• Fermi level , Ef
• Carrier concentration equations
• Donors and acceptors both present

Chap 2 - 45
 The Fermi-Dirac Distribution (Fermi Fu
nction)
Probability of available states at energy E being occupied
1/ [1+ exp (E- Ef) /kT]
where Ef is the Fermi energy and k = Boltzmann constant=8.617 .10-5
eV/K

Chap 2 - 46
 k B  1.38 1023 JK -1
a) Energy level diagrams showing the excitation of an electron from the valence band to the conduction band.
The resultant free electron can freely move under the application of electric field.
b) Equal electron & hole concentrations in an intrinsic semiconductor created by the thermal excitation of
electrons across the band gap
Chap 2 - 47
 n-Type Semiconductor

a) Donor level in an n-type semiconductor.

b) The ionization of donor impurities creates an increased electron concentration distribution.

Chap 2 - 48
 p-Type Semiconductor

a) Acceptor level in an p-type semiconductor.

b) The ionization of acceptor impurities creates an increased hole concentration distribution

Chap 2 - 49
 Intrinsic & Extrinsic Materials
• Intrinsic material: A perfect material with no impurities.
Eg
n  p  ni  exp( ) [1]
2 k BT
n & p & ni are the electron, hole & intrinsic concentrat ions respective ly.

E g is the gap energy, T is Temperature.

• Extrinsic material: donor or acceptor type semiconductors.

2
pn  ni [2]

• Majority carriers: electrons in n-type or holes in p-type.

• Minority carriers: holes in n-type or electrons in p-type.
• The operation of semiconductor devices is essentially based on the
injection and extraction of minority carriers.

Chap 2 - 50
 Periodic Table
Column 3 Column 4
Elements Elements have
have 3 4 electrons in
electrons in the Valence
the Valence Shell
Shell
Column 5
Elements
have 5
electrons in
the Valence
Shell

Chap 2 - 51
 The Fermi Function
The Fermi Function
• Probability distribution function (PDF)
• The probability that an E will be occupied
by an e-available state at an energy
E  Energy level of interest f(E)
Ef  Fermi level
1
 Halfway point
 Where f(E) = 0.5
k  Boltzmann constant
= 1.38×10-23 J/K=8.617×10-5 eV/K 0.5
T  Absolute temperature (in Kelvins)

Ef E

1
f  E   E E f  kT
1 e
Chap 2 - 52
 Boltzmann Distribution

If E  E f  kT f(E)
Then 1
 
f  E  e
 EE f kT

0.5
Boltzmann Distribution
• Describes exponential decrease in the density of
particles in thermal equilibrium with a potential
gradient Ef E
• Applies to all physical systems
• Atmosphere  Exponential distribution of gas molecules
• Electronics  Exponential distribution of electrons ~Ef - 4kT ~Ef + 4kT
• Biology  Exponential distribution of ions

Chap 2 - 53
 Band Diagrams (Revisited)
E

EC
Eg
Ef
EV
0.5 1 f(E)
Band Diagram Representation
Energy plotted as a function of position
EC  Conduction band
 Lowest energy state for a free electron
 Electrons in the conduction band means current can flow
• Virtually all of the
EV  Valence band
 Highest energy state for filled outer shells valence-band
 Holes in the valence band means current can flow
energy levels are
Ef  Fermi Level
 Shows the likely distribution of electrons
filled with e-
EG  Band gap
• Virtually no e- in
 Difference in energy levels between EC and EV the conduction
 No electrons (e-) in the bandgap (only above EC or below EV)
 EG = 1.12eV in Silicon
band Chap 2 - 54
 Effect of Doping on Fermi Level
Ef is a function of the impurity-doping level
n-Type Material
E

EC
Ef

EV
0.5 1 f(E)

• High probability of a free e- in the conduction band

• Moving Ef closer to EC (higher doping) increases the number of
available majority carriers
Chap 2 - 55
 Effect of Doping on Fermi Level
Ef is a function of the impurity-doping level

p-Type Material
1 f  E
E
EC

Ef
EV
0.5 1 f(E)

• Low probability of a free e- in the conduction band

• High probability of h+ in the valence band
• Moving Ef closer to EV (higher doping) increases the number of
available majority carriers
Chap 2 - 56
Equilibrium Carrier Concentrations
n = # of e- in a material
p = # of h+ in a material

ni = # of e- in an intrinsic (undoped) material

Intrinsic silicon
• Undoped silicon
• Fermi level
• Halfway between Ev and Ec
• Location at “Ei”
E

EC
Eg
Ef
EV
0.5 1 f(E)
Chap 2 - 57
Equilibrium Carrier Concentrations
Non-degenerate Silicon
• Silicon that is not too heavily doped
• Ef not too close to Ev or Ec

Assuming non-degenerate silicon

 E f  Ei  kT
n  ni e
 Ei  E f  kT
p  ni e
Multiplying together
2
np  ni

Chap 2 - 58
 Charge Neutrality Relationship

• For uniformly doped semiconductor

• Assuming total ionization of dopant atoms

p  n  ND  N A  0
# of carriers # of ions

Total Charge = 0
Electrically Neutral

Chap 2 - 59
 Calculating Carrier Concentrations
• Based upon “fixed” quantities
• NA, ND, ni are fixed (given specific dopings for a
material)
• n, p can change (but we can find their equilibrium
values)
1
N D  N A  N D  N A  
2 2
2
n     ni 
2  2  
1
N A  N D  N A  N D  
2 2
2
p     ni 
2  2  
2
ni

n
Chap 2 - 60
 Common Special Cases in Silicon

1. Intrinsic semiconductor (NA = 0, ND = 0)

2. Heavily one-sided doping
3. Symmetric doping

Chap 2 - 61
Intrinsic Semiconductor (NA=0,
ND=0)
Carrier concentrations are given by

n  ni
p  ni
n  p  ni

Chap 2 - 62
 Heavily One-Sided Doping
N D  N A  N D  ni
N A  N D  N A  ni
This is the typical case for most semiconductor applications

If N D  N A , N D  ni (Nondegenerate, Total Ionization)

Then n  N D
2
ni
p
ND
If N A  N D , N A  ni (Nondegenerate, Total Ionization)
Then p  N A
2
ni
n
NA
Chap 2 - 63
 Symmetric Doping

Doped semiconductor where ni >> |ND-NA|

• Increasing temperature increases the number of

intrinsic carriers
• All semiconductors become intrinsic at
sufficiently high temperatures

n  p  ni
Chap 2 - 64
Determination of Ef in Doped Semiconductor
 ND 
E f  Ei  kT ln   for N D  N A , N D  ni
 ni 
 NA 
Ei  E f  kT ln   for N A  N D , N A  ni
 ni 

Also, for typical semiconductors (heavily one-sided doping)

n  p
E f  Ei  kT ln     kT ln   [units eV]
 ni   ni 

Chap 2 - 65
 Thermal Motion of Charged
Particles
• Look at drift and diffusion in silicon
• Assume 1-D motion
• Applies to both electronic systems and biological
systems

Chap 2 - 66
 Resistivity
• Closely related to carrier drift
• Proportionality constant between electric field and the total particle
current flow
1
 where q  1.602  1019 C
q n n   p p 
n-Type Semiconductor p-Type Semiconductor
1 1
 
qnND qpNA
• Therefore, all semiconductor material is a resistor
– Could be parasitic (unwanted)
– Could be intentional (with proper doping)
• Typically, p-type material is more resistive than n-type material for
a given amount of doping
• Doping levels are often calculated/verified from resistivity
measurements
Chap 2 - 67
 Changes in Carrier Numbers
Primary “other” causes for changes in carrier concentration
• Photogeneration (light shining on semiconductor)
• Recombination-generation

Photogeneration

n p
  GL Photogeneration rate
t light t light

Creates same # of e- and h+

Chap 2 - 68
 Changes in Carrier Numbers
ndirect Thermal Recombination-Generation
p  p

 p h in n-type material concentrations
+ n,p  equilibrium carrier
t R G 0 0

n, p  carrier concentrations under

n  n arbitrary
 e -
in p-type material conditions
t R G n Δn, Δp  change in # of e- or h+ from

equilibrium conditions

Assumes low-level injection

p  n0 , n  n0 in n - type material
n  p0 , p  p0 in p - type material

Chap 2 - 69
 Minority Carrier Properties
Minority Carriers
• e- in p-type material
• h+ in n-type material

Minority Carrier Lifetimes

• τn  The time before minority carrier electrons undergo recombination in p-
type material
• τp  The time before minority carrier holes undergo recombination in n-type
material
Diffusion Lengths
• How far minority carriers will make it into “enemy territory” if they are
injected into that material
Ln  Dnn for minority carrier e- in p-type material

Lp  Dpp for minority carrier h+ in n-type material

Chap 2 - 70
 Equations of State
• Putting it all together
• Carrier concentrations with respect to time (all processes)
• Spatial and time continuity equations for carrier concentrations

n n n n n
   
t t drift t diff t R G t other
( light )

1 n n
   Jn  
q t R G t other
   ( light )
Related to Current

p p p p p
   
t t drift t diff t R G t other
( light )

1 p p
   Jp  
q t R G t other
    ( light )
Related to Current

Chap 2 - 71
 Equations of State
Minority Carrier Equations
• Continuity equations for the special case of minority carriers
• Assumes low-level injection

n p  2 n p n p
 Dn   GL
t x 2
n
Light generation

Indirect thermal recombination

n 1 J
J, assuming no E-field qDn and also   J n  Dn n
x q x

pn  2 pn pn

 Dn   GL
t x 2
p

np, pn  minority carriers in “other” type of material

Chap 2 - 72