Thermal Properties of

Matter
Difference Between Temperature and
Heat
Temperature is a number. That number is related to energy, but it is
not energy itself.
Temperature is a number that is related to the average kinetic
energy of the molecules of a substance.
If temperature is measured in Kelvin degrees, then its value is
directly proportional to the average kinetic energy of the molecules
of a substance. Note that temperature is not energy, it is a number
proportional to a type of energy.
Heat, on the other hand, is actual energy measured in Joules or
other energy units. Heat is a measurement of some of the
energy in a substance. When you add heat to a substance, you
are adding energy to the substance. This added heat (energy) is
usually expressed as an increase in the kinetic energies of the
molecules of the substance. If the heat (energy) is used to
change the state of the substance, say by melting it, then the
added energy is used to break the bonds between the molecules
rather than changing their kinetic energy.

Heat energy can be transferred from one body to another when

there is a difference in temperature.
Different Scales of Temperature
 The Celsius scale:

Also called the Centigrade temperature scale, it is a part of

the metric system of measurement that is widely used by people
in all parts of the world, except the United States, for everyday
temperature measurements. Such a scale is used in scientific
work everywhere.
The Celsius scale is based on 00 for the freezing point of water
and 1000 for the boiling point. Between these defined points,
the scale is divided into 100 equal parts.
Other important temperatures on the Celsius scale include
370 (optimum body temperature) and 200 (room temperature).
Temperatures below the freezing point of water are affixed
negative values. 
The Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius originally invented
the Celsius scale in 1742. It was later improved upon and
given its official name in 1948 by the ninth General
Conference of Weights and Measures.
The Fahrenheit scale:
This scale is based on 320 for the freezing point of
water and 2120 for its boiling point, the interval
between the two being divided into 180 equal parts.  
Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit, an eighteenth century
German physicist, developed this scale. He
determined three fixed temperatures: 00F for the
freezing point of a mixture of ice, water and salt,
320F for the freezing point of pure water and 2120F
for the boiling point of pure water. These three
values, from lowest to highest, are equal to –180,
00 and 1000 on the Celsius scale. He selected the
value of 900 for normal body temperature, which was
later revised to 960, but the final scale required an
adjustment to 98.60F.  
Sometimes it is necessary to compare a Celsius
temperature to a Fahrenheit temperature. The
following formula can be used to convert a
temperature from its representation on the
Fahrenheit (0F) scale to the Celsius (0C) value: 0C=
5/9 (0F – 32). 
The conversion formula for a temperature that is
expressed on the Celsius scale to its Fahrenheit
representation is 0F= 9/5 X 0C.
 Absolute temperature scale:

Absolute zero 
Absolute zero is that theoretical temperature at which
atoms and molecules of a substance making up a
thermodynamic system have the least possible energy.
It is the lowest attainable temperature and
corresponds to –273.15ºC, or –459.67ºF. 
The value of Absolute zero was assigned on the basis
of observations of the relationship between the
pressure and temperature of a gas.
It was noted that gases confined in a fixed
volume seemed to contract in direct proportion
as the temperature was lowered – as though it
would attain zero volume at what is now called
the absolute zero of temperature. Any real gas
however, actually condenses to a solid or liquid
at some temperature higher than absolute zero;
therefore the ideal gas law is only an
approximation to real gas behavior.  
 Ideal gas model assumptions:
Negligible molecular volume.
No attractive forces between gas particles.
No potential energy .
Perfectly elastic collisions between the particles and
the walls of the container.
The gas molecules are constantly moving in random
directions with a distribution of speeds.
Ideal gas equation: p V = n R T
P= absolute pressure = pgauge + 1 atm
V= volume in m3
n= number of moles; mole = 6.022 (10)23
T= absolute temperature (Kelvin)
R= gas constant = 8.3145 J/mole K
= 0.0821 L atm / mole K
Van der Waals gas equation:
( p + a n 2/ V 2 ) (V – n b ) = n R T
where a and b are empirical constants
and are different for different gasses.
b = volume on one mole of molecules, so
nb = the total volume of the molecules.
a = attractive intermolecular forces
(called “Van der Waals forces”) which
reduce the pressure of the gas for a given
n, V, and T.
Ideal gas p  p + a (n 2/ V 2)
THERMAL EXPANSION
You may have observed that mercury in a thermometer rises,
when the thermometer is put in a slightly warm water. If we take
out the thermometer from the warm water the level of mercury
falls again. Similarly a balloon partially inflated in a cool room
may expand to full size when placed in warm water. On the other
hand, a fully inflated balloon when immersed in cold water
would start shrinking due to contraction of the air inside. It is our
common experience that most substances expand on heating and
contract on cooling. A change in the temperature
of a body causes change in its dimensions.
The increase in the dimensions of a body due to
the increase in its temperature is called thermal
expansion.
The expansion in length is called linear expansion.
If the substance is in the form of a long rod, then for small change in
temperature, ΔT, the fractional change in length, Δl/l, is directly
proportional to ΔT.

where α1 is known as the coefficient of linear expansion and is

characteristic of the material of the rod. Normally, metals expand
more and have relatively high values of αl.
Similarly, we consider the fractional change in volume, ΔV/V, of a
substance for temperature change ΔT and define the coefficient of
volume expansion, α V as

Here αV is also a characteristic of the substance but is not

strictly a constant. It depends in general on temperature.
Water has a maximum density at 4 °C. This property has an
important environmental effect: Bodies of water, such as lakes
and ponds, freeze at the top first. As a lake cools toward 4 °C,
water near the surface loses energy to the atmosphere, becomes
denser, and sinks; the warmer, less dense water near the bottom
rises. However, once the colder water on top reaches
temperature below 4 °C, it becomes less dense and remains at
the surface, where it freezes. If water did not have this property,
lakes and ponds would freeze from the bottom up, which would
destroy much of their animal and plant life.
Gases at ordinary temperature expand more than solids and liquids.
For liquids, the coefficient of volume expansion is relatively
independent of the temperature. However, for gases it is dependent
on temperature. For an ideal gas, the coefficient of volume
expansion at constant pressure can be found from the ideal gas
equation :
PV = μRT
At constant pressure
PΔV = μR ΔT

i.e. αv=1/T for ideal gas.

At 0 °C, αV = 3.7 × 10–3 K–1, which is much larger than that for
solids and liquids.
There is a simple relation between the coefficient of volume
expansion (αV) and coefficient of linear expansion (αl).
Imagine a
cube of length, l, that expands equally in all directions, when
its temperature increases by ΔT. We have
Δl = αl l ΔT
so, ΔV = (l+Δl)3 – l3
ΔV = 3l2 Δl
In equation, terms in (Δl)2 and (Δl)3 have been neglected since
Δl is small compared to l. So

which gives
αv = 3αl
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
The quantity of heat required to warm a given substance depends
on its mass, m, the change in temperature, ΔT and the nature of
substance. The change in temperature of a substance, when a given
quantity of heat is absorbed or rejected by it, is characterized by a
quantity called the heat capacity of that substance. We define
heat capacity, S of a substance as

where ΔQ is the amount of heat supplied to the substance to

change its temperature from T to T + ΔT.
Every substance has a unique value for the amount of
heat absorbed or rejected to change the temperature of
unit mass of it by one unit. This quantity is referred to
as the specific heat capacity of the substance.
If ΔQ stands for the amount of heat absorbed or
rejected by a substance of mass m when it undergoes a
temperature change ΔT, then the specific heat
capacity, of that substance is given by
The specific heat capacity is the property of the
substance which determines the change in the temperature
of the substance (undergoing no phase change) when a
given quantity of heat is absorbed (or rejected) by it. It is
defined as the amount of heat per unit mass absorbed or
rejected by the substance to change its temperature by one
unit. It depends on the nature of the substance and its
temperature. The SI unit of specific heat capacity is J kg–1
K–1.
If the amount of substance is specified in terms of moles
μ, instead of mass m in kg, we can define heat capacity
per mole of the substance by

where C is known as molar specific heat capacity of

the substance. Like S, C also depends on the nature of
the substance and its temperature. The SI unit of molar
specific heat capacity is Jmol–1K–1.
However, in connection with specific heat capacity of
gases, additional conditions may be needed to define
C. If the gas is held under constant pressure during
the heat transfer, then it is called the molar specific
heat capacity at constant pressure and is denoted
by Cp. On the other hand, if the volume of the gas is
maintained during the heat transfer, then the
corresponding molar specific heat capacity is called
molar specific heat capacity at constant volume
and is denoted by Cv.
 CALORIMETRY
A system is said to be isolated if no exchange or transfer of heat
occurs between the system and its surroundings. When different
parts of an isolated system are at different temperature, a
quantity of heat transfers from the part at higher temperature to
the part at lower temperature. The heat lost by the part at higher
temperature is equal to the heat gained by the part at lower
temperature.
Calorimetry means measurement of heat. When a body at higher
temperature is brought in contact with another body at lower
temperature, the heat lost by the hot body is equal to the heat
gained by the colder body, provided no heat is allowed to escape
to the surroundings
A device in which heat measurement can be made is called a
calorimeter. It consists a metallic vessel and stirrer of the same
material like copper or aluminum. The vessel is kept inside a
wooden jacket which contains heat insulating materials like glass
wool etc. The outer jacket acts as a heat shield and reduces the heat
loss from the inner vessel.
There is an opening in the
outer jacket through which
a mercury thermometer can
be inserted into the calorimeter.
This provides a method by which
the specific heat capacity of a
given solid can be determinate
by using the principle, heat
gained is equal to the heat lost.
 CHANGE OF STATE

Matter normally exists in three states: solid, liquid, and

gas. A transition from one of these states to another is
called a change of state. Two common changes of states
are solid to liquid and liquid to gas. These changes can
occur when the exchange of heat takes place between the
substance and its surroundings.
The change of state from solid to liquid is called melting
and from liquid to solid is called fusion. It is observed
that the temperature remains constant until the entire
amount of the solid substance melts.
That is, both the solid and liquid states of the substance coexist in
thermal equilibrium during the change of states from solid to
liquid. The temperature at which the solid and the liquid states of the
substance in thermal equilibrium with each other is called its melting
point. It is characteristic of the substance and depends on pressure.
The melting point of a substance at standard atmospheric pressure is
called its normal melting point.
The change of state from liquid to vapour (or gas) is called
vaporisation. It is observed that the temperature remains constant
until the entire amount of the liquid is converted into vapour. That is,
both the liquid and vapour states of the substance coexist in thermal
equilibrium, during the change of state from liquid to vapour. The
temperature at which the liquid and the vapour states of the substance
coexist is called its boiling point.
Triple Point
The temperature of a substance remains constant during
its change of state (phase change). The temperature and
pressure at which the fusion curve, the vaporisation curve
and the sublimation curve meet and all the three phases of
a substance coexist is called the triple point of the
substance. For example the triple point of water is
represented by the temperature 273.16 K and pressure
6.11×10–3 Pa.
 Triple point of water

Click on the picture

 Latent Heat
Certain amount of heat energy is transferred between a
substance and its surroundings when it undergoes a change
of state. The amount of heat per unit mass transferred
during change of state of the substance is called latent heat
of the substance for the process. For example, if heat is
added to a given quantity of ice at –10 °C, the temperature
of ice increases until it reaches its melting point (0 °C). At
this temperature, the addition of more heat does not
increase the temperature but causes the ice to melt, or
changes its state. Once the entire ice melts, adding more
heat will cause the temperature of the water to rise.
A similar situation occurs during liquid gas change of state
at the boiling point. Adding more heat to boiling water
causes vaporisation, without increase in temperature.
The heat required during a change of state depends upon
1.the heat of transformation
2.the mass of the substance undergoing a change of state.
Thus, if mass m of a substance undergoes a change from
one state to the other, then the quantity of heat required is
given by
Q=mL
or L = Q/m
 Q=mL
or L = Q/m
where L is known as latent heat and is a characteristic
of the substance. Its SI unit is J kg–1. The value of L
also depends on the pressure. Its value is usually quoted
at standard atmospheric pressure. The latent heat for a
solid-liquid state change is called the latent heat of
fusion (Lf), and that for a liquid-gas state change is
called the latent heat of vaporisation (Lv). These are
often referred to as the heat of fusion and the heat of
vaporisation.
Note that when heat is added (or removed) during a change of
state, the temperature remains constant. For water, the latent heat
of fusion and vaporisation are Lf = 3.33 × 105 J kg–1 and Lv =
22.6 × 105 J kg–1 respectively. That is 3.33 × 105 J of heat are
needed to melt 1 kg of ice at 0 °C, and 22.6 × 105 J of heat are
needed to convert 1 kg of water to steam at 100 °C. So, steam at
100 °C carries 22.6 × 105 J kg–1 more heat than water at 100 °C.
This is why burns from steam are usually more serious than those
from boiling water.
HEAT TRANSFER
We have seen that heat is energy transfer from one system to
another or from one part of a system to another part, arising due to
temperature difference. What are the different ways by which this
energy transfer takes place? There are three distinct modes of heat
transfer : conduction, convection and radiation.
Conduction
Conduction is the mechanism of transfer of heat between two
adjacent parts of a body because of their temperature difference.
Suppose one end of a metallic rod is put in a flame, the other end of
the rod will soon be so hot that you cannot hold it by your bare
hands. Here heat transfer takes place by conduction from the hot
end of the rod through its different parts to the other end. Gases are
poor thermal conductors while liquids have conductivities
intermediate between solids and gases.
Heat conduction may be described quantitatively as the time rate of
heat flow in a material for a given temperature difference
Consider a metallic bar of length L and uniform cross section A
with its two ends maintained at different temperatures, say, TC
and TD respectively. Let us assume that the sides of the bar are
fully insulated so that no heat is exchanged between the sides and
the surroundings. After sometime, a steady state is reached; the
temperature of the bar decreases uniformly with distance from TC
to TD; (TC>TD). The reservoir at C supplies heat at a constant
rate, which transfers through the bar and is given out at the same
rate to the reservoir at D. It is found that in this steady state, the
rate of flow of heat H is proportional to the temperature
difference and the area of cross section A and is inversely
proportional to the length L.
 It is found that in this steady state, the rate of flow of
heat H is proportional to the temperature difference
and the area of cross section A and is inversely
proportional to the length L :

The constant of proportionality K is called the thermal

conductivity of the material. The greater the value of K
for a material, the more rapidly will it conduct heat. The
SI unit of K is J S–1 m–1 K–1 or W m–1 K–1.
 Convection

Convection is a mode of heat transfer by actual motion of

matter. It is possible only in fluids. Convection can be
natural or forced. In natural convection, gravity plays an
important part. When a fluid is heated from below, the
hot part expands and, therefore, becomes less dense.
Because of buoyancy, it rises and the upper colder part
replaces it. This again gets heated, rises up and is
replaced by the colder part of the fluid. The process goes
on. This mode of heat transfer is evidently different from
conduction.
Convection involves bulk transport of different parts of the fluid.
In forced convection, material is forced to move by a pump or by
some other physical means. The common examples of forced
convection systems are forced-air heating systems in home, the
human circulatory system, and the cooling system of an
automobile engine. In the human body, the heart acts as the pump
that circulates blood through different parts of the body,
transferring heat by forced convection and maintaining it at a
uniform temperature.
Natural convection is responsible for many familiar
phenomena. During the day, the ground heats up more
quickly than large bodies of water do. This occurs both
because the water has a greater specific heat and because
mixing currents disperse the absorbed heat throughout the
great volume of water. The air in contact with the warm
ground is heated by conduction. It expands, becoming less
dense than the surrounding cooler air. As a result, the warm
air rises (air currents) and other air moves (winds) to fill the
space-creating a sea breeze near a large body of water.
Cooler air descends, and a thermal convection cycle is set
up, which transfers heat away from the land. At night, the
ground loses its heat more quickly, and the water surface is
warmer than the land. As a result, the cycle is reversed.
 Radiation

Conduction and convection require some material as a

transport medium. These modes of heat transfer cannot
operate between bodies separated by a distance in vacuum.
But the earth does receive heat from the sun across a huge
distance and we quickly feel the warmth of the fire nearby
even though air conducts poorly and before convection can
set in. The third mechanism for heat transfer needs no
medium; it is called radiation and the energy so radiated by
electromagnetic waves is called radiant energy
 In an electromagnetic wave electric and magnetic fields
oscillate in space and time. Like any wave,
electromagnetic waves can have different wavelengths and
can travel in vacuum with the same speed, namely the
speed of light i.e., 3 × 108 m s–1 . This is how heat is
transferred to the earth from the sun through empty space.
All bodies emit radiant energy, whether they are solid,
liquid or gases. The electromagnetic radiation emitted by
a body by virtue of its temperature like the radiation by a
red hot iron or light from a filament lamp is called thermal
radiation.
When this thermal radiation falls on other bodies, it is partly
reflected and partly absorbed. The amount of heat that a body
can absorb by radiation depends on the colour of the body. We
find that black bodies absorb and emit radiant energy better than
bodies of lighter colours. This fact finds many applications in
our daily life. We wear white or light coloured clothes in
summer so that they absorb the least heat from the sun.
However, during winter, we use dark coloured clothes which
absorb heat from the sun and keep our body warm. The bottoms
of the utensils for cooking food are blackened so that they
absorb maximum heat from the fire and give it to the vegetables
to be cooked.
Similarly, a Dewar flask or thermos bottle is a device to
minimise heat transfer between the contents of the bottle and
outside. It consists of a double-walled glass vessel with the
inner and outer walls coated with silver.
 NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING

We all know that hot water or milk when left on a table begins to
cool gradually. Ultimately it attains the temperature of the
surroundings. A given body can cool on exchanging heat with its
surroundings.
A hot body loses heat to its surroundings in the form of heat
radiation. The rate of loss of heat depends on the difference in
temperature between the body and its surroundings. Newton was
the first to study, in a systematic manner, the relation between the
heat lost by a body in a given enclosure and its temperature.
According to Newton’s law of cooling, the rate of loss of
heat, –dQ/dt of the body is directly proportional to the
difference of temperature ΔT = (T2–T1) of the body and
the surroundings. The law holds good only for small
difference of temperature. Also, the loss of heat by
radiation depends upon the nature of the surface of the
body and the area of the exposed surface. We can write,
where k is a positive constant depending upon the area
and nature of the surface of the body. Suppose a body of
mass m and specific heat capacity s is at temperature T2.
Let T1 be the temperature of the surroundings. If the
temperature falls by a small amount dT2 in time dt, then
the amount of heat lost is
dQ = ms dT2
∴Rate of loss of heat is given by
From previous equations, we have

where K = k/m s
On integrating,
loge (T2 – T1) = – K t + c
or T2 = T1 + C′ e–Kt; where C′ = e c
This equation enables you to calculate the time of
cooling of a body through a particular range of
temperature.
For small temperature differences, the rate of cooling, due
to conduction, convection, and radiation combined, is
proportional to the difference in temperature. It is a valid
approximation in the transfer of heat from a radiator to a
room, the loss of heat through the wall of a room, or the
cooling of a cup of tea on the table.