THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 1857

Lecture 02
INTRODUCTION
• By the 1850’s the British were confident that their control over the Indian Subcontinent
was secure. But, in 1857, British authority was challenged by a violent uprising.
• Although this attempt failed, its legacy was to inspire greater generations to seek
independence for their own countries.
• There is a lot of disagreement about the causes and importance of the revolt.
• Historians cannot even agree what to call it; the British call it “the Indian Mutiny”,
Pakistani and Indian historians call it “the great revolt”, “ the great rebellion of 1857”, “the
Indian Revolution” and the “The first War of Independence 1857”.
• The “Mutiny” as it was called by the British was in fact, the first War of Independence
against the British government in 1857.
• It Started from Meerut on May 10, 1857
• On the issue of the cartridges made up of fat of pigs which needed to take into mouth
before operating it. Mangal Panday a native soldier of the 34th native infantry fired at his
British officers. As a result he was caught and hanged. The soldiers refused to use this
weaponry and revolted against the British Crown.
• The East India Company came under a direct threat caused by a civil rebellion in Central
India and Upper Gangetic Plain, Northern Madhyia Pardesh, Bihar and Delhi.
• Since the soldiers were militarily trained and higher in number, they took control of Delhi
and pushed the English Army out. Bahadur Shah Zafar was made the King of India. The
King was hailed by the masses and coins of his name were issued and he got popularity
in the public.

• Bakht Khan was made the Commander-in-Chief after Mirza Mughal, the son of Bahadur
Shah.

• The War brought some initial successes perhaps it was unexpected for the British Crown.
Therefore, Madhyia Perdesh, Bihar and Hariana came under their detention but the
Indian Army could not keep up the pace because it lacked the artillery. They were under
the Crown by the end of the day.
• The British Army was equipped with higher level and number of artillery. Delhi was
avenged of the soldiers in a brutal way by the British Army after their victory. Bahadur
Shah Zafar was arrested and sent to Rangoon and his sons heads were brought before
Bahadur Shah Zafar as meals.
• The war ended up with the sweeping victory of the British Raj and the end of 800 years of
Muslims rule.
• The Victory in War gave them authorities to avenge the disobediences and they made the
policies later on to deprive the Muslims of their due rights in India. They were denied their
due share in employments, education, trade, and finance while the Hindus were given
priority in these domains.
• Posts of ink fillers, koolies, and messengers were fixed for the Muslims as punishment for
their audacity in 1857.
CAUSES
1. POLITICAL CAUSES
• A. British Policy of Expansion: The British expanded their political power in India four ways:

1. By Outright Wars: To expand their territory India, British fought many wars. Example: War of
Buxar (BBO), Anglo Mysore War, Third Anglo Maratha War, Second Anglo-Sikh War etc.

2. System of Subsidiary Alliance: Lord Wellesley introduced this system in which Indian States were
brought under the British control without annexing them. Under this system Indian rulers agreed to:
• Accept British as Supreme Power,
• End foreign relations and wouldn’t enter any alliance/wars,
• British resident at their HQ & wouldn’t employ any European without consulting,
• Maintain British troops at their own cost,
• Virtually lost Independence.
3. Doctrine of Lapse: Lord Dalhousie annexed many Indian states using Doctrine of Lapse
according to which heirs adopted without consent of the Company could inherit only the
private property of the deceased ruler and his territory would come under the Company’s rule .
Example: In 1853 Ruler of Jhansi died without natural heir. Widow Rani was retired and their
adopted son Anand Rao wasn’t recognised as successor to throne. Similary, States of Satara,
Nagpur, Udaipur etc had same problems.

4. On the pretext of Alleged Misrule (Annexation of Awadh):

Lord Dalhousie annexed Awadh on 13 Feb 1856 on the pretext of Alleged Misrule. British
broke their promises given to ruling chiefs. People had to face more hardships, had to pay
higher taxes & revenues, problems of unemployment rose, property were confiscated, 75000
sepoys were worst affected & didn’t like what British did in Awadh.

B. Disrespect shown to Bahadur Shah:

Bahadur Shah- A mughal ruler was under protection of the Company but after his death, Lord
Dalhousie announced that ruler’s widow Zeenat Mahal and successors cant use Red Fort as
Palace and in 1956 Lord Canning announced that the successors can’t use imperial titles.
This hurt sentiments of Muslims.
C. Treatment given to Nana Saheb & Rani Laxmi Bai
Baji Rao II- the last Peshwa was under the protection of Company but after his death they
refused to pay the grant to the ruler’s adopted son i.e. Nana Saheb. He was sent to Kanpur
away from Poona. He then travelled to different parts of country to create awareness about
British policies. Rani Laxmi Bai of Jhansi- victim of Doctrine of Lapse became bitter enemy of
the British. Other rules also had a doubt in the British.

D. Absentee Sovereignty of the British (India’s Wealth Drained to England)

India was being ruled by British from England. Unlike other rulers like Mughals who spent the
revenue collected from India in India. But in case of the British, Indians felt that wealth of
India was drained to England and wasn’t used for the welfare of Indians.
• The British annexed territories through forceful annexations and through wars. In 1843,
Sindh was annexed and Punjab was annexed by the British in 1849. but the forceful
annexation of Oudh in 1856 created much unrest among the people. Oudh army was
disbanded and taxes were imposed which enraged the public.

• Doctrine of Lapse was enforced in 1852. under this rule, a number of Hindu states whose
rulers died without a male heir, were taken over by the British. Pensions and titles of
many state rulers were discontinued. It created great unrest among the public.
2. SOCIO-RELIGIOUS CAUSES
1. Interference with Social Customs: Sati, Widow Remarriage Act, Western education to girls
wasn’t welcomed by masses.
2. Apprehension about Modern Innovations like Railways & Telegraphs: Indians
misunderstood that telegraph poles were erect to hang them and in railways higher castes
were made to seat with lower castes.
3. Policy of Racial Discrimination: Disrespect & Ill-treatment was given to Indians.
4. Corruption in Administration: rich were allowed to go away after crime and poor were
looted & tortured.
5. Oppression of the Poor: Beating, Torture and Imprisonment
6. Fear regarding Western Education: Pandits and Maulvis feared that it is done to convert
their children to Christians.
7. Taxing religious places: lands belonging to temples and mosques
• The British had kept themselves aloof from the Indian people. Their behavior was
arrogant and they treated the Indians as inferiors. They did not know the needs, wishes
and desires of Indian people.
• Persian was replaced by English as official and court language in 1835. English
education was started in school. It greatly effected the Muslims who gradually lost their
social status and suffered economically.
• High posts were reserved for the British. Then the Hindus were selected for the lower
administrative jobs because of their education. Lowest and most inferior jobs were given
to Muslims.
• Missionary activities were going on openly with the government support. Facilities were
offered to attract people towards Christianity and forceful conversions took place.
• The immediate cause was the case of greased cartridges which were issued for newly
introduced rifles. The cover of the cartridge was to be removed with teeth before loading
into the rifle. The cartridge cover was coated with animal fat. Hindus and Muslim soldiers
both refused to use these because they feared animal fat was either the fat of cow or pig.
The soldiers were punished and put in jail by the British officers.
• The result was that a contingent of military garrison at Meerut revolted. They killed their
British officers and marched towards Delhi. Thus the War of Independence 1857started.
3. ECONOMIC CAUSES
1. Exploitation of Economic exploitation
2. Drain of wealth
3. Decay of cottage industries and handicrafts
4. Growing unemployment
5. Inhuman treatment of Indigo cultivators
6. Poverty & Famines
7. Economic decline of Peasantry
8. Decline of landed Aristocracy
1. Exploitation of Economic exploitation:
• India was forced to export cotton, silk at cheaper rate to England
• Forced plantation of Indigo and Tea
• Indians had to accept ready made British goods
• Indian products had high import duties in England
• Indian handmade products couldn't compete with machine made British products.
• Problem of unemployment increased
• India had no agricultural surplus which raised the prices of raw material in India

2. Drain of wealth:
After Battle of Plassey, British stopped bringing gold to India. Raw material was bought in
England from the surplus revenues of Bengal and started looting India’ raw materials,
resources and wealth. The transfer of wealth from India to England is called Drain of Wealth.
3. Decay of Cottage Industries and Handicrafts:
• Heavy duties killed Indian Cottage Industries and Handicrafts.
• Imported British goods worsened their condition
• Export of cotton and silk was ceased
• Art of spinning and weaving was killed creating severe unemployment
• Absence of royal buyers- Princes, Zamindars etc.

4. Growing unemployment

5. Inhuman treatment of Indigo cultivators:

forced plantation of Indigo, other crops were destroyed if didn’t follow the orders and cattle were taken
away as punishment.

6. Poverty & Famines:12 Minor Famines, British didn’t bother

7. Economic decline of Peasantry: Peasants had to pay heavy taxes & land revenues.

8. Decline of landed Aristocracy: Hereditary landlords & Taluqdars’ 2000 estates were confiscated (who
couldn't produce evidences of ownership) and auctioned. Merchants and moneylenders bought these
estates and exploited tenants.
4. MILITARY CAUSES
1. Ill treatment of Indian Soldiers
2. Lower Salaries
3. Deprivation of Allowances
4. Less Chances of Promotions
5. General Service Enlistment Act
6. Larger Proportion of Indians in the British Army
7. Faculty distribution of Troops
8. Poor performance of British Troops
1. Ill treatment of Indian Soldiers: Indian soldiers were ill treated, poorly fed & badly housed.
Didn’t bother about their sentiments and didn’t allow to keep beard, wear turbans etc.
2. Lower Salaries: Indian soldiers were paid eight times less salaries than British soldiers.
3. Deprivation of Allowances: British empire was spread across the nation and soldiers had to
serve in areas away from their homes without extra payment and additional Bhatta (foreign
service allowance) Free post facility for Sepoys was also taken off.
4. Less Chances of Promotions: All higher posts were reserved for British (irrespective of their
performances). Indians soldiers had thin chances of promotions. They couldn’t go above the
post of Subedar. With promotions future of Indian soldiers was bleak (miserable)
5. General Service Enlistment Act: It was considered as Taboo for Brahmin to cross the sea.
In spite of that British sent Indians overseas on duty. Didn’t bother about the sentiments.
6. Larger Proportion of Indians in the British Army: in 1856, 2,38,000 Indian soldiers worked
in British army as compared to 45,322 British Soldiers.
7. Faulty distribution of Troops: Strategic important places like Delhi & Allahabad had no
British armies and was held by only Indian soldiers. When England was busy fighting wars
outside Indian soldiers decided to strike British.
8. Poor performance of British Troops: Without supportof Indian soldiers, British army was
weak this fact was realized by the Indian soldiers. Also in various other wars British had to
face defeatthis broke the myth that British were invincible.
CONSEQUENCES
1. End of East India Company’s Rule
2. Queen Victoria’s Proclamation
3. End of Mughals and Peshwas
4. Relations with Princely States
5. Policy of Divide and Rule
6. Widening Gulf between Hindus and Muslims
7. Racial Antagonism
8. Increased Racial Bitterness
9. Religious Changes
10. Foreign Policy
11. Changes in the Army
12. Economic Exploitation
13. Rise of Nationalism
• End of the East India Company’s rule: Crown took over the charge from Company
Secretary of State for India was appointed who reported to British Parliament.
• Queen Victoria’s Proclamation: 1 Nov, 1958 at Allahabad the transfer of governance was
done. Lord Canning became the first Viceroy of India. Promised not to intervene in social
and religious matters, would bring equality, pardon soldiers, best for Indian industries etc.
• End of Mughals and Peshwas: Bahadur Shah II went to Yangon and Nana Saheb went to
Nepal. Two foes of British came to an end.
• Increased Racial Bitterness: British believed that Indian aren’t trust worthy and remodeled
the structure of Indian government based on the idea of a superior race.
• Religious changes: British rulers declared that they would not intervene in religious
affairs, customs and traditions.
• Foreign Policy: India foreign policy was decided by British with two aims: a) protection of
its Indian empire and b) expansion of British economic & commercial interests.
Changes in Army: to avoid another uprising Indian army was re-organised after 1858 in
following manner:
1. No. of Indian troops was decreased to 1,40,00 and No. of European troops was increased
to 65,000.
2. European troops were kept in key locations.
3. Policy of excluding Indians from officer positions was strictly followed.
4. Weapons were never placed under the charge of Indians.
5. Divide and Rule policy was practiced during the recruitment in the army. Discouraged
nationalism through caste/religion discrimination in regiments.
6. Soldiers weren’t allowed to read newspapers & journals.
• Economic Exploitation:
i. India became a colony to export raw material and import finished goods.
ii. Salaries of soldiers, military officers, Council members was taken from India’s resources
iii. Peasants were bankrupt/poor during British rule. (Indigo peasants)
iv. Indian cottage industries and handicrafts collapsed
v. Indians had to pay heavy taxes, revenues and dividend to British.

• Rise of Nationalism:
i. Uprising of 1857, paved way for the Rise of the National Movement.
ii. Sacrifices made by Rani Laxmi Bai, Nana Saheb, Mangal Pandey inspired Indians.
iii. Started a tradition of resistance to the British rule.
DRAWBACKS
• Lack of planning, organisation and leadership
• Lack of common cause
• Lack of participation from all sections of the society
• Lack of resources
• Lack of nationwide dimensions
• Beginning of the movement before the fixed date (May 31, 1857)
CONCLUSION
• War of Independence is an important landmark in the history of Sub-Continent. This War
was fought in 1857 by Indians against the British in order to get rid of their domination. It
is also given names as Indian Rebellion, Indian Mutiny as well as Indian Revolt. The main
causes of the War were political, social, economical, military and religious. It was an
extreme effort made by Indians, but they failed due to certain reasons including mutual
jealousies, disunity, and lack of central leadership etc.
• This war was not spread throughout India but it was limited to few areas mainly Meerut,
Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow etc. The main event which became the immediate cause of the
war was the refusal of the Sepoys to use the grease covered cartridges (greased with fat
of pig and cow) on January 23, 1857. At the same time, an Indian sepoy killed two British
officers at Barrackpore, when he was forced to use greased cartridges. He was arrested
and hanged to death on April 8, 1857. This news spread as fast as jungle fire.
• Most of the European historians have pointed out that it was a revolt of Indian soldiers
who were offended at the use of greased cartridges. In their opinion, the discontented
sepoys were incited by the landlords and the deposed native princes and the people of
India were not directly involved in this rebellion. They further assert that it was not a
national war of independence, in as much as the revolt was confined to a particular
region and not to the whole of India; large areas like the Punjab, Sind and Rajputana
remained unaffected. It was admittedly a great and courageous effort by patriotic Indians
to get rid of the foreign domination. It was a glorious landmark in our history in as much
as Hindus and Muslims fought shoulder to shoulder to win back their lost independence.
One cannot but admire the patriotic spirit of boatmen of Lucknow who refused to carry
British soldiers across the river. The sepoys and the people fought gallantly up to the very
end. Though the revolt was unsuccessful, the spirit of the people remained unshaken.
The revolt left an impression on the minds of the Indian people and thus paved the way
for the rise of a strong national movement.