Chapter 1

Introduction to Human
Anatomy and Physiology

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1.1 Introduction
A. The early students of anatomy and physiology
were most likely concerned with treating illnesses
and injuries.
B. Early healers relied on superstitions and magic.
Later, herbs and potions were used to treat certain
ailments.
C. Techniques for accurate observations and
performing experiments were developed.
D. Greek and Latin words are still the basis of the
language for anatomy and physiology.
E. Scientific method has been used to gather
information about the natural world, including the
workings of the body. 2
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1.2 Anatomy and Physiology

A.Anatomy deals with the structure (morphology) of

the body and its parts; in other words, the names of
the parts.
B.Physiology studies the functions of these parts or
asks the question, “how do they work?”
C.The two disciplines are closely interrelated because
the functional role of a part depends on how it is
constructed.
D.Anatomists rely on observation and dissection,
while physiologists employ experimentation.
E.It is more common to discover new information
about physiology but anatomical discoveries are being
made as well.
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 Fig 1.2 4
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1.3 Levels of Organization

A.The human body is the sum of its parts and these

parts can be studied at a variety of levels of
organization.
1. Chemicals
a. Atoms are the simplest level.
b. Two or more atoms comprise a molecule.
c. Macromolecules are large, biologically
important molecules inside cells.
2. Organelles are aggregates of macromolecules
used to carry out a specific function in the cell.
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Levels of organization, cont

3. Cells are the basic units of structure and

function for living things.
4. Tissues are groups of cells functioning together.
5. Groups of tissues form organs that have
specialized functions.
6. Groups of organs function together as organ
systems.
7. Organ systems functioning together make up an
organism.

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 Fig 1.3
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1.4 Characteristics of Life
A.Fundamental characteristics of life are traits shared
by all organisms.
1. Movement – change in position of the body or a
body part; motion of an internal organ
2. Responsiveness – reaction to internal or external
change
3. Growth – increase in size without change in
shape
4. Reproduction – new organisms or new cells
5. Respiration – use of oxygen; removal of CO2
6. Digestion – breakdown of food into simpler forms

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 7. Absorption – movement of substances through
membranes and into fluids
8. Circulation – movement within body fluids
9. Assimilation – changing nutrients into
chemically different forms
10. Excretion – removal of metabolic wastes

B. Taken together, these 10 characteristics

constitute metabolism – the physical and chemical
events that obtain, release, and use energy.

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1.5 Maintenance of Life

A.Requirements of organisms to live

1. Life depends on the availability of the following:
a. Water
1) Most abundant chemical in the body
2) Required for many metabolic processes
3) Provides the environment for metabolic
processes
4) Transportation medium
5) Regulated body temperature
6) Makes up intracellular and extracellular fluid
compartments

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 Fig 1.4 11
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1. Requirements of life, cont
b. Food
1) Provides the body with needed nutrients
2) Needed for energy, raw building materials
for growth and repair, and to regulate
chemical reactions
c. Oxygen – releases energy from food
d. Heat – product of metabolic reactions that
controls reaction rate; temperature: measure
of the degree of heat

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1. Requirements of life, cont
e. Pressure
1) Force applied to something
2) Atmospheric pressure is needed for
breathing
3) Hydrostatic (water) pressure is needed to
move blood through blood vessels
2. Both the quality and quantity of these factors are
important

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B. Homeostasis
1. Maintenance of a stable internal environment
is called homeostasis.
2. Homeostasis is regulated through control
systems which have receptors, a set point,
and effectors in common.
a. Receptors are of many types whose job is
to monitor for changes
b. The set point is the normal value or range
of values
c. Effectors are muscles or glands that
respond to the changes to return to stability

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3. Examples include:
a. Homeostatic mechanisms regulate body
temperature in a manner similar to the
functioning of a home heating/cooling
thermostat.
b. Another homeostatic mechanism employs
pressure-sensitive receptors to regulate
blood pressure
4. Each individual uses homeostatic mechanisms
to keep body levels within a normal range;
normal ranges can vary from one individual to
the next.

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 5. Many of the body's homeostatic controls are
negative feedback mechanisms.
a. Responses move in the opposite direction
from the change
b. Reduces the amount of change from the
set point
c. Includes most control mechanisms in the
body

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 Fig 1.6 17
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 Fig 1.7 18
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6. Positive feedback mechanisms
a. Response moves further from the set point
b. Change from set point gets larger
c. Many positive feedback mechanisms
produce unstable conditions in the body
d. Examples associated with normal health
1) Blood clotting
2) Birth

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1.6 Organization of the body

A.Body Cavities
1. The body can be divided into an axial portion
(head, neck, and trunk) and an appendicular
portion (upper and lower limbs).
2. The axial portions contains several cavities that
house body organs
a. Cranial cavity – brain
b. Vertebral cavity – spinal cord
c. Thoracic cavity – heart, lungs, mediastinum

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 d. Abdominopelvic cavity
1) Abdominal cavity – viscera of digestion
and the spleen
2) Pelvic cavity – end of large intestine,
urinary bladder, and internal reproductive
organs
e. A broad, thin muscle called the diaphragm
separates the thoracic and abdominopelvic
cavities

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 Fig 1.9 22
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3. Smaller cavities
within the head
include the oral
cavity, nasal cavity,
orbital cavities, and
middle ear cavities

Fig 1.10
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B. Thoracic and Abdominopelvic Membranes
1. Double-layered membranes; the parietal portion
attaches to wall cavity and the visceral portion covers
the internal organ.
2. The thoracic cavity is lined with pleural membranes;
the parietal pleura lines the cavities while the visceral
pleura covers the lungs. A thin layer of serous fluid
separates the two layers.
3. The heart is surrounded by pericardial membranes. The
parietal pericardium makes up an outer sac and the
visceral pericardium covers the heart. Serous fluid
separates the two layers.
4. Peritoneal membranes line the abdominopelvic cavity;
a parietal peritoneum lines the wall while the visceral
peritoneum covers the organs.

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 Fig 1.11 25
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 Fig 1.12 26
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C. Organ Systems
1. Body Covering
a. The integumentary system, including
skin, hair, nails, and various glands,
covers the body. It protects underlying
tissues, helps regulate body
temperature, senses changes, and
synthesizes certain products.

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2. Support and Movement
a. The skeletal system is made up of bones
and ligaments. It supports, protects,
provides frameworks, stores inorganic salts,
and houses blood-forming tissues.
b. The muscular system consists of the
muscles that provide body movement,
posture, and body heat.

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3. Integration and Coordination
a. The nervous system consists of the brain,
spinal cord, nerves, and sense organs. It
integrates incoming information from
receptors and sends impulses to muscles and
glands.
b. The endocrine system, includes the
hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid,
pineal, and thymus glands, pancreas,
ovaries, and testes, along with other organs
that secrete hormones. It helps to integrate
metabolic functions.

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4. Transport
a. The cardiovascular system, is made up of
the heart and blood vessels. It distributes
oxygen, nutrients, and hormones
throughout the body while removing
wastes from the cells.
b. The lymphatic system, consists of lymphatic
vessels, lymph nodes, thymus, and spleen.
It drains excess tissue fluid and includes
cells of immunity.

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5. Absorption and Excretion
a. The digestive system is made up of the
mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, and
accessory organs. It receives, breaks down,
and absorbs nutrients.
b. The respiratory system exchanges O2 and
CO2 between the blood and air and is made
up of the lungs and passageways.
c. The urinary system, consists of the kidneys,
ureters, bladder, and urethra. It removes
wastes from the blood and helps to
maintain water and electrolyte balance.

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6. Reproduction
a. The reproductive system produces new
organisms.
1) The male reproductive system consists of
the testes, accessory organs, and vessels
that produce and conduct sperm to the
female reproductive tract.
2) The female reproductive system consists
of ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina,
and external genitalia. It produces egg
cells and also houses the developing
offspring.

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 Fig 1.13 33
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1.7 Anatomical Terminology

A.Anatomical position : body erect, face forward,

upper limbs at sides with palm forward.
B.Terms of relative position describe the location of
one body part with respect to another.
1. Superior – above another part
2. Inferior – below another part
3. Anterior (ventral) – toward the front
4. Posterior (dorsal) – toward the back
5. Median – closer the midline
6. Lateral – toward the side
7. Bilateral – paired structures with one on each
side
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1. Relative position terms, cont
8. Ipsilateral – structures on the same side
9. Contralateral – structures on the opposite
sides
10. Proximal – closer to point of attachment or
another referenced body part
11. Distal – further from the point of attachment pr
another referenced body part
12. Superficial – near the surface; peripheral –
outward or near the surface
13. Deep – more internal

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 Fig 1.14 36
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C. Body Sections
1. A sagittal section divides the body into right
and left portions. If it passes along the midline
and divides the body into equal parts it is a
median or midsagittal section. A section
lateral to the midline is parasagittal.
2. A transverse (horizontal) section divides the
body into superior and inferior portions.
3. A frontal (coronal) section divides the body
into anterior and posterior sections.

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 Fig 1.15 38
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 Fig 1.16 39
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D. Body regions
1. The abdominal area
can be divided into
nine regions –
epigastric, right and
left hypochondriac,
umbilical, right and
left lumbar,
hypogastric, and right
and left iliac

Fig 1.17a 40
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1. Body regions, cont
2. The abdominal area
can also be divided
into four quadrants –
right and left upper
quadrants and right
and left lower
quadrants

Fig 1.17b 41
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3. Terms for various body regions

Fig 1.18 42
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