INTRODUCTION TO

LOGIC
General Introduction

Set by
MEQUANINT

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 What is philosophy?
 is the combination of two Greek
words
Philo means love
 Sophia means Wisdom
So etymologically philosophy
could be understood as love of
wisdom.
It is open ended(endless)
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 Working Definition of philosophy
Philosophy is an attempt to think rationally and
critically about the fundamental questions of
life, Like questions of Reality.
Knowledge
Values
Arguments/reasoning.
A general outlook of the world that raises basic
questions life.
Is the mother of all other sciences.
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 Philosophy

Metaphysics Epistemology Aesthetics Logic Ethics

Arguments/
Reasoning

Reality Knowledge Artistic Values

Deductive
Reasoning
Moral Values
Inductive
Reasoning

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 1, Meta physics (ontology)
Proponents are Plato and Aristotle.
Literally mean beyond /after physics
from the name of physics book said to be
“tametaphysikabibilia” which was used as
reference book for physics students.
 is the study of reality.
Concerned on issues like the sources of the universe?
What is reality?
Is reality one or many?
Here we have monoists and dualists
That believed that reality is one and many respectively .
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About
 the sources of the universe ,in ancient period myth
was considered to be the ultimate sources of the universe,
later fire then latter in the 6th CBC, it was supposed that
water is the chief sources of the universe .
Idealism and materialism are the two metaphysical

position.
I. Idealism
It
 is mind plus its ideas which is real or responsible
about the existence of matter
Ideas precedes matter.

Ideas exist prior to matter.

Mostly it is a religious outlook.
 .

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 A. Subjective Idealism
Things do not have independent existence out of
perception.
Objects can’t exist without perception /perceiver.
No perception no existence.
Fore example:
lets see the idea of G.Berklay
“Esse esti percipi”(latine word) meaning
“To be is to be perceived”

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 B. Objective Idealism
Things have independent existence i.e. apart from
perception.
Existence is regardless of perception.
Perception has nothing to do with existence.

II. Materialism
It is matter plus its motions which is real
Matter precedes ideas
Matter cannot be created or destroyed.
Aristotle, in metaphysical position, is materialist that
he argued that from the very beginning there was
formless matter(choas)latter the unmoved mover and
8 uncaused cause gives shape for the formless matter .
 2.Epistimology
Founded by Xenophanes.
From two Greek words
‘Epistimo’ means Knowledge
‘logy’ means study
Literally it means the study of theories of
knowledge.
What is knowledge?
What is the difference between knowledge and
belief?
How do we acquire knowledge?
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 Based on the aforementioned questions we have
three theories of knowledge.
A. Empiricism
Proponents are Aristotle, Thomas Hobe and
john Locke
Knowledge is acquired through sense
experiences
Posterior meaning after sense experience
Mind at beginning is like “Tabularasa” latine
word to mean white sheet of paper/blank sheet
of paper.
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 B. Rationalism
o Proponents are Rene Descartes, Plato, Socrates'
o Reason is a source of knowledge
o Believed that ideas are innate
o They are said to be prereori
o Soul knows every thing before she enters the flesh body of
an individual (Plato).
o Soul recollects the forgotten idea since it knows every
thing before.
o Death is the liberation of soul (socratus)
C. Skepticism
o Doubtful
o it is difficult to acquire Knowledge either through sense
11 experience or reason.
 3. Aesthetics
Proponents are Plato , Aristotle and Immanuel
kant
concerned with artistic values like beauty ,art,
music, love etc
Is a philosophy of what people like, look at
,hear ,smell,taste,feel,and why they prefer
these things than others.
Raises questions what is love?
The relation ship between art and beauty?
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 4.Ethics
 Comes from Greek word “ethos” w/h means
Behavior, character ,regulation
 Is concerned on moral values /Morality
 An in depth thinking and questioning moral
principles.
 An area of study w/h attempts to raise
fundamental moral questions and tries to
provide logical and meaningful answers to them.

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 5. Logic (Reasoning Skill)
 Xenocrates is the founder of logic.
 Aristotle is the father of logic .
 Xenocratus is the founder b/c he is the first person
who tried to base his position based on evidences.
 Aristotle is the father b/c he devised systematic
techniques and methods of evaluating arguments
for the first time.
Comes from a Greek word
 logos which means - offering reason
- thought / evidence
14 -Coming up with principle or law
Traditionally logic was understood as follows:
Fore example:
If an individual said that my point of view is
logically correct ,it mean as follows.
 The idea forwarded is based on rational grounds
i.e. he is reasonable.
 The assertion made is provable/justifiable.
 The idea is forwarded with sufficient ,acceptable
and relevant evidences.
 The idea offered is believable,
acceptable/persuasive
 He presented his view point in the way that he makes
15his audiences to believe that he is correct.
 A branch of philosophy that evaluates an
argument.
A science that evaluates an argument.
Is a study of methods and principles used to
distinguish good(correct)from bad (incorrect)
reasoning.
Is concerned with the formulation of principle
of right reasoning .
Is a tool that philosophers employ to investigate
the other branches of philosophy
It mean correct reasoning.
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 Laws of Logic
There are three laws of logic.
These laws are crucial or the base for correct
reasoning/logical thinking.
With out these laws logical thinking is impossible.
A:Law of Non- Contradiction.
Advocates “Nothing can both be and not be at the
same time and at the same situation”.
E.g., x could not be both x or not x at the same
time and at the same situation”.

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 B:Laws of Excluded Middle
“Something is either is or is not”.
Eg, x is either x or not x ,regardless of the time and
situation it occurs.

C:Laws of Identity
“some thing is what it is”
E.g, A is A.
Plato argued that a chalk is a chalk, because, its
form makes tableness.

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 Aims of Logic
To know criterias of evaluating
arguments.
To establish our own (valid and
strong )blameless arguments.
To be an influential person upon
social, economic ,political and
other aspects of life in the
19 community that he/she is living.
 To develop skill and confidence to evaluate the
argument of others and to setup our own persuasive
arguments/logical speech.
To be praised and respected.
To get the positive mobility of people on your side.
To get majority support and transform one self
into position of leadership.
To persuade/convince others reasonably than
other methods such as intimidation, fear and
emotions ,so as to accept and run our position.
To develop reasonableness/ improve quality of
reasoning.
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 Logic do not teach us how to think but rather to think
correctly.
To avoid fallacious expressions.
 Logic honest our mind.
To develop carefulness in expressing our arguments.
 It helps us to ride ourselves from being
passionate and develop reasonableness.
It furnishes us standards to evaluate and develop
criticisms against the arguments of others.
Logic raises the level of thinking in all aspects
of our selves.
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 Argument
The word argument in English language refers.
Quarrels
Bitter controversy
Squabbles
 disagreement.
Mere verbal fight.

 All these meanings of the term “argument” do

not refer its correct usage in logic .
 
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 cont….
An attempt to show some thing is true by
providing reason.
 Giving reason for or against some claim.
a group of statements, one or more of which
(the premise) are claimed to provide support
(reason) to the conclusion.
E.X, All this class students are female.
Alemu is a member of this class.
So, he is a female
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 Cont…
Statement: sentence that is either True or
False, but not both one and at the same time.
 used to assert or deny something and
evaluated as True of False.
Statements have two possible truth values:
true or false
Ex, New York is a city in USA
Ato Meles is the P.M of Ethiopia.

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 cont…..
Non-statement expressions
 Unlike statements, many sentences can not be said to be
either true of false.
1. Question- How old are you?
2. proposals: Let’s go to the party today.
3. Suggestion:you would rather go by Airplane.
4. Command: stand up!

5. Exclamations: Very good ¡

Right on ¡

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 cont…
 Premise: a statement that provides, reason or
evidence.
An assumption or claim provided by the
arguer as evidence or information.
Premise of an argument can be one or more
than one statement.
 Claimed to provide evidence.

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 cont…..
Conclusion:- is a statement that the evidence is
claimed to be supported/implied.
Conclusion : What is claimed to follow from the
evidence/premises.
EX, All Ethiopian university students are brilliant.
Gondar university students are Ethiopian
university students.
So, they are Brilliant

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 cont….
 An argument in which the premises really do
support the conclusion are Good arguments.
E.X All uncles are males.
Abdu ,is an uncle
There fore, Abdu is a male
 the above argument Good argument

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 cont………….
 When premises do not support the conclusion
though they are claimed to the argument is
Bad .
E.X. Some Ethiopians are poor
Alhamudi is an Ethiopian.
There fore, he is poor.
is a kind of bad argument.

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 How we differentiate premises and
conclusion in an argument
Based on indicator words
The following are conclusion indicator words,
Therefore - hence
Accordingly - so
We may conclude - It follows that
Hence - As a result
Thus - consequently
It may be that

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 cont…
 The following are premise indicator words
Since -- Owing to
For – Given that
As – For the reason that
Because – Seeing that
As indicated by
Ex. Pregnant mothers should not smoke
cigarettes, since smoking cigarettes
jeopardize the development of the fites
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 cont…
 Some times an argument may not contain
indicators, for both the premise and the
conclusion, when this happen we should answer
the following questions effectively.
 Which statement is clamed to follow from the
other
 What is the arguer trying to prove?
 What is its main point?

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 cont….
E.X morally weak persons are not happy.
Zinash, who is morally weak, is not happy
thought her life.
How ever through inspecting the aim of the
argument we can identified both the premise
and the conclusion i.e.
P= morally weak persons are not happy.
C= Zinash , who is morally weak is not
happy throughout her life
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 Non-argument expressions
 statements lacking inferential claim .
 they are also known as unsupported
assertions.
Non argument expressions lack
inferential claims presented by the
arguer as premise or conclusion.
Inferencethe reasoning processes

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 cont….
An argument is expected to have
 factual Claim .
Inferential claim.
 There are several forms of non-argument
expressions which lacks inferential.
 Among these the following are notable.

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 cont….
A. Warnings
 Are sentences or group of sentences used to give
some strong directions.
E.X stop doing so or will throw you out.
B. Piece of advice
expressions which used to give guidance counseling
for an individual to follow appropriate actions
,procedures etc
E.X , I suggest you that, you shall take logic course
in this semester.
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 cont…
C. Statement of belief/opinion
 Are expressions of what some one believe in/think at a
certain time.
E.X, I believe that all of you will get A grade in logic.
D. Report
Is a group of statements that convey information about
some situation or event.
Journalists present some reports about an event.

E.X, Barack Obama won 2012 US presidential election

(Aljezira)

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 cont……….
E. Illustrations
Are forms of exemplifying or clarifying concepts,
issues or different subject matters..
E.X mammals are vertebrate animals that nourish their
young with milk. For example, cat, dog, caw, and
humans are mammals.
N.B We can change illustrations in to an argument.
E.X you said that no mammal can fly, but that is
inaccurate. At least one mammal has wing and can fly.
Fore example Bats are mammals.

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 cont….
F. Explanations
 A statement intended to shed light on some event,
situation or phenomena that is accepted as a matter of
Fact.
 Generally all explanation has two components.
These are
A: Explanadum :- is a statement that describes the event to
be explained
: is the thing to be explained.
B: Explanans:- are words used to explain the explanadum.
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 cont……
EX. Thanks to the favorable condition that the
government created for export economy, in 2003
Ethiopian economy increased by 10 percent.
Explanadum:- is in 2003 the Ethiopian economy
increased by 10 percent.
Explanans: - thanks to the favorable condition
that the government created for export economy
in 2003 the Ethiopian economy increased by 10
percent.

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 cont…….

N.B Explanation can be re expressed to form

argument
What happen---------------explanation
Why/how----------------------argument
EX. Light rays from the sun are scattered by
particles in the atmosphere. There fore, the
Sky appears blue from the earth’s surface.

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 cont…………
G. conditional statements
Are compound sentences of the form
“ If----then--- “or”
----If----
 is made up of two components statements.
The statement which comes following the word “if” is
called Antecedent, and the other statement which comes
following the word “then” is called the Consequent.
E.X.1 Do not expect “A” from this course, if you do not
study hard.

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 cont…
Relationship between conditional statement
and arguments.
1:A single conditional statement by itself is
not an argument.
2:A conditional statement can serve as either a
premise or conclusion (or both) of an
argument.

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 cont………….
3: conditional statement can be re expressed
to form an argument.
EX. If both Saturn and Uranus have rings,
then Saturn has rings.
Both Saturn and Uranus have rings there for
of Saturn has rings.
4:A conditional statement with other
conditional statement can form an argument

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 cont…
 conditional statements expresses the
relationship between sufficient and
necessary conditions.
 ‘X’ is said to be a sufficient condition for
‘Y’ whenever the occurrence of ‘X’ is all
that is needed for the occurrence of ‘Y’.
EX, “If you are stabbed by knife, a scare will
appear on your body”
“being stabbed by a knife is a sufficient
condition for the occurrence of scare.”
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 cont…
 ‘X’ is said to be the necessary condition for
‘Y’ whenever ‘Y’ cannot occur without the
occurrence of ‘X’.
For example, air is a necessary condition for
life.
 But it is not a sufficient condition since
there are other necessary conditions to be
full filled in addition to air.

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 TYPES OF ARGUMENTS
 There are two types of arguments
based on the connection between
premises and conclusion.
These are : 1. deductive arguments.
2.inductive arguments.
N.B Their basic difference is in the
strength of inferential claim of the
argument .
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 Cont…
A .Deductive argument
 is an argument in which the conclusion is
claimed to follow from premises with absolute
necessity.
 When we present a deductive argument, if our
opponents accept our premises, there is little
likelihood for the denial of the conclusion.
Ex. All human beings are mortal.
Kebede is a human being.
48 Therefore, Kebede is Mortal.
 Continued
B. Inductive argument
 is an argument in which the conclusion is claimed to
follow only probably from the premises i.e. the
premises support the conclusion with a degree of
probability.
The conclusion does not follow with logical necessity
or certainty from the premises.
E.X 80 Apples where selected from a basket
containing 100 apples, and they were Found to be
ripe.
There fore, probably all apples are ripe.
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How can we distinguish deductive from inductive Arguments

A.By using indicator words.

All the following are indicators of Deductive argument.
 definitely .
 Certainly.
Necessarily.
absolutely .
for sure.
Ex. All human beings are mortal.
Kebede is a human being.
For sure, Kebede is Mortal.
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 Continued
All these are indicators of inductive argument
Probably .
Plausibly .
Improbably.
Implausibly.
Likely /unlikely.
E.X . Last year there was fair rain fall and good harvest in
Ethiopia.
This year too, there is fair rain fall.
There fore, probably next year there will be a good harvest
in Ethiopia.

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 Continued
B. Based on the Actual strength of the inferential claim .
If the information or idea contained in the
conclusion necessarily derived from the
premises the argument is deductive.
The conclusion of inductive argument
doesn’t follow with logical necessity or
certainty from the premises.
 In this types of argument we focus on the
degree of probability.
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 continued
C. Based on the form of Argument.
Forms of deductive argument.
A.ARGUMENT BASED ON PURE MATHEMATICS
 In this type of argument the conclusion is depend on some
purely arithmetic or geometric computation or
measurement.
 statistical arguments are not deductive since they are based
on probabilistic /sampling techniques.
EX .Normal body temperature of a healthy person is 37%.
Ms x’ s body temperature reached 52%.
There fore, her health condition is not good.

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 continued
B.ARGUMENT FROM DEFINITIONS
The conclusion is claimed to depend merely
up on the definition of some words or phrases
used in the premise.
The conclusion already defines the truth of
the premises.
E.X1. God is omniscient. Hence, he knows
every thing.
EX2.Mr X is a bachelor. so, he is un
married.
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 continued
C. SYLLOGISTIC ARGUMENT
are arguments consisting of exactly two
premises and one conclusion.
We can have three types of syllogistic
arguments, these are:
E.x All FSSH students are clever
All DCES students are under FSSH
So, They are clever
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 continued
1.Categorical syllogism
This type of argument is formed by categorical
quantifiers such as all, no, and some.
E.X All puppies are dogs.
All dogs are animals that can not fly.
There fore, all puppies are dogs that can not
fly.
It will be valid if it is universal negative and
universal affirmative(no/all) particular
affirmative and negative are always invalid.
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 Cont..
Any categorical syllogistic argument will
Be valid in the form
All Aare B All A are B
All C are A OR All B are C
so, C are B All A are C
Unless it will be invalid

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 cont..
E.x, All human beings are mammals
All mammals are animals
So, All human are animals
Or
Ex, All human beings are mammals
Alemu is a human being
So, he is a mammal
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 Continued
2. Hypothetical syllogism
This argument is formed by or contains a conditional
statement
If……..then…..
Or
……. If …….
E.X If stone scratches glass, and then stone is harder than
glass.
Stone scratches glass.
Therefore, stone is harder than glass
Hypothetical syllogism is of two types.
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 Continued
A .Mixed Conditional statements
 Mixed conditional statements could be valid only
in the following form.
1. Modus ponens
It can be defined as “A mode or means of making
conditional statements positive.” And it has the
following form
If A, then B
A
So, B
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 Continued
E.X If Einstein was a physist, then he was a
scientist.
Einstein was a physist.
So, Einstein was a scientist
N.B The order of the premises (statements) can be
changed i.e.
“A; if A, then B; so B
E.X Einstein was a physist.
If Einstein was a physist, then he was a scientist.
So, Einstein was a scientist
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 Cont..
B.Modus tollens
It can be defined as “A mode or means of
making conditional statements “negative”
this argument gets its name from the second
premise which denies the consequent of
the first premise and it has the following
form.

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 Continued
If A, then B
Not B
So, not A .

E.X If it is raining, then the ground becomes wet

The ground is not wet.
So, it is not raining.
N.B Like modus ponens we can change the order or form of the
argument like,
Not B; if A, then B; so not A

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 Continued
B.
Pure conditional statements
They will be valid in the following form.
If A then B
if B then C
so, if A then C
Fallacies in conditional statements
Any argument whether it is deductive or inductive if
it becomes fallacious , if it is a deductive argument it
is invalid and if it is inductive it is weak argument.
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 Continued
1.Denying the antecedent
fallacies may appear in modus tollens. They have the
following form
If A, then B
Not A
So, not B
E.X If Abraham Lincoln committed suicide, then he is
dead.
Abraham Lincoln did not commit a suicide.
So, Abraham Lincoln is not dead.
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 Continued
2.Affirming the consequent
 fallacies may found in modus ponens through
having the following form
If A, then B
B
So, A
E.X ,If Einstein was a physist, then he was a
scientist.
Einstein was a scientist.
So, Einstein was a physist.
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 Cont….

C . Disjunctive syllogism
This type of arguments are formed by

“Either…….or…….” conjuctor
Ex. Either Bahirdar or Gondar is the capital city
of ANRS.
Gondar is not the capital of Amhara.
There fore, Bahirdar is the capital city of
ANRS.
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 Cont..
It could be valid either of the following
manner.
 Either A or B
not A
so B
 Either A or B
not B
so, A
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 Continued
 It could be invalid in the following form.
Either A or B
A
so not B
 Either A or B
B
so not A

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 Continued
Forms of Inductive arguments
A. Argument From Analogy
 the most common type of inductive argument .
 is an argument in which the similarity of two or more things
(entities) in one or More respect is used as the premise and
its conclusion is that those entities are similar in some
further respect.
E.X. Abebe’s Toyota has an excellent seat, agasmilleage and a
computer set.
Tesfaye’s Toyota has an excellent seat and a gasmilleage.
so, Probably, Tesfaye’s Toyota has a computer set.
70
 Continued
B. Inductive Generalization
 Is an argument which proceeds from the
knowledge of selected samples to some claim
about the whole group.
Example:
There are 100 students who are taking the course
introduction to logic. Among these students 10 of
them were selected at random and found to be
intelligent. Therefore, this shows that all of these
students are intelligent
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 continued
C. Arguments based on Signs
 Is an argument in which the conclusion is
depend up on placement /displacement of
symbols.
E.X. The packed material says that, “Keep it
far from children”.
There fore, this packed material must
contain some sort of medicine
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 Continued
D. Casual Inference(Causation)
Underlies arguments that proceed from knowledge
of cause to knowledge of an effect or the reverse.
 Expresses Cause effect relationship.
E.X. A bottle of wine was accidentally left in the
freezer overnight.
There Fore, the bottle of wine had frozen.
E.X. I have tasted a piece of chicken and found it dry
and crunchy.
There fore, the chicken had been over cooked
73
 Continued
E .Arguments based on Prediction
The Premises deals with some known event in
the past, present, and the conclusion moves
beyond this event to some event in the relative
future.
Example:-
It has been raining for the whole day of this
week.
This shows that it will rain for the coming week.
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 Cont…
Validity and Invalidity
every deductive argument is either valid or
invalid.
we can evaluate deductive arguments as;
valid, invalid, sound, and unsound.

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 Cont..
Valid Deductive Argument
If the premises do in fact support the conclusion the
argument is valid.
The validity of an argument can be distinguished from
its conclusion i.e. if the premise assumed true, then it
is impossible for the conclusion to be false.
In a valid deductive argument premises and
conclusion are so related that it is absolutely
impossible for the conclusion to be true unless the
premise is true also.
T.P # F.C
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 continued
In these type of argument the conclusion
follows from premises with necessity i.e.
T.P=T.C
F.P=F.C
E.X All mammals are four footed animals.
All cows are mammals.
Therefore, all cows are four-footed
animals

77
 continued
If the premises support or become relevant to the
truth of the conclusion then the argument is valid.
This is because logical validity depends on the
form of the argument, not on its content.
In deductive arguments, when the conclusion
follows from the premise or when the premises
support the conclusion, the argument is said to be
good or correctly formed and a correctly formed
argument is called valid argument

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 INVALID DEDUCTIVE
ARGUMENT
If the reasoning in a deductive argument is
not correctly formed i.e. if the premise
becomes irrelevant or not supportive to
the conclusion the argument is invalid.
A deductive argument is always invalid
when the premise is true and the
conclusion is false

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 Cont..
In these types of argument if premises are
assumed true it is possible for the conclusion to be
false.
E.X some animals are two footed
human beings are animals
There fore, all peoples are two-footed.
Premises Conclusion
F T
T F
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 cont,..
Rule
1.There is no middle ground between
valid and invalid arguments i.e. we can
not call a given argument as it is
almost valid or almost invalid.
2.There is almost indirect relation
between validity and truth value.

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 Cont…
truth or falsity of premises and conclusion
can be illustrated as follows.
Premise Conclusion validity.
T T either
T F Always Invalid
F T either
F F either

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 Soundness and Unsoundness

A. SOUND ARGUMENT
If a deductive argument has all true premises
and become valid in reasoning.
a deductive argument is sound if and only if it
is valid and have all of its premises are true.
S.A= All T.P + valid in Reasoning
T.P = T.C

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 Cont…….
B. UNSOUND ARGUMENT
1.Valid argument but at least has one F.Ps.
2.Invalid with all true premise i.e. it has F.C.
3.It is invalid but at least one false premise.

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 Cont..
Inductive arguments
can be evaluated as strong, weak, cogent and
uncogent.
the conclusion is claimed to follow from its
Premise only with probability but the degree of
probability can be strong or weak.
A. Strong inductive argument.
if the premises are assumed true, it is probable
for the conclusion to be true or it is improbable
85 for the conclusion to be false.
 Cont..
E.X.1 This barrel contains 100 oranges.
80 oranges were selected at random and
found to be spoilt.
It follows that all the 100 oranges are
spoilt.
Strong b/c the degree of probability
is high.
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 Cont…
Weak Inductive argument
if the premises are assumed true it is probable for the
conclusion to be false.
 has greater probably to be false and lesser to be true.
E.X.1. Slightly less than 50% of Ethiopian are men.
X is an Ethiopian.
Therefore, X is a man.
E.X.2 This barrel contains 100 oranges.
Five oranges selected at random were found to be spoilt.
It follows that that, all the 1000 oranges spoilt.
 Weak b/c the degree of probability is very less.

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 Cont..
N.B Strength and weakness has an indirect relation with
truth or falsity.
Rather based on the strength of the connection between the
premise and the conclusion.
Premise Conclusion Strong/weak
T T either
T F Always Weak
F T either
F F either

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 Indicators of weak and strong arguments
 
weak Strong
Nearly all
little
All
some
No
less than
Vast majority
Few
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 Cont..
Cogency and un cogency
Cogent argument
 is an inductive argument that is strong and
have probably all true Premises.
C.A = All true premise + Strong
Also called “good” inductive argument.
E.X. All American presidents were male.
Therefore, the next American president
Will be a man.
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 Cont….
Un cogent argument-
1.Strong but has at least one false premise.
2.Weak but with all true premises.
3.Weak at least one false premise.
 E.X This barrel contains 100 oranges.
Five oranges selected at random & were
found to be spoilt.
It follows that all 100 oranges may be spoilt.

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