Fluids

Lecture
Fluids
Lecture questions
 Ideal fluid . Viscous fluid. Stationary flow

 The continuity equation
 Bernoulli’s law
 Poiseuille's Law
 Surface tension
 Capillary Action
Fluids
Fluids include liquids, gases, and plasmas.
• All fluids have the property of fluidity, the ability to flow
(also described as the ability to take on the shape of the
container).
• An ideal fluid (perfect fluid) has no viscosity. It is a
frictionless fluid. The flow of a fluid that is assumed to have
no viscosity is called inviscid flow. The ideal fluids can
only be subjected to normal, compressive stress which is
called pressure. Real fluids display viscosity and so are
capable of being subjected to low levels of shear stress.
• Steady-state (stationary) flow refers to the condition
where the fluid properties at any single point in the system
do not change over time. These fluid properties include
temperature, pressure, and velocity.
The continuity equation
• In the steady-state case for incompressible and inviscid
flow product of a cross-sectional area (S) of a tube and
fluid velocity (V) is constant. Hence, a reduced cross
section gives a greater velocity.
SV=const
• The product SV is the volume flowrate.
Bernoulli’s law
• In a stationary flow of ideal liquid
v 2
p  gh  const
2
• where p is the static pressure (in Newtons per square meter), ρ
is the fluid density (in kg per cubic meter), v is the velocity of
fluid flow (in meters per second) and h is the height above a
reference surface. The second term in this equation is known
as the dynamic pressure.
Viscosity
• The viscosity of a fluid can be defined as the
measure of how resistive the fluid is to flow. It is
analogous to the friction of solid bodies in that it
also serves as a mechanics for transforming
kinetic energy into thermal energy. Given two
plane parallel plates separated by a distance and
with a fluid between them. The resistance to flow
in a liquid can be characterized in terms of the
viscosity of the fluid if the flow is smooth. In the
case of a moving plate in a liquid, it is found that
there is a layer or lamina which moves with the
plate, and a layer which is essentially stationary if
it is next to a stationary plate.
Viscosity
Fluid Velocity Profile
Under conditions of laminar flow in a viscous fluid, the velocity

increases toward the center of a tube.
The velocity profile as a function of radius is
Poiseuille's Law
• In the case of smooth flow (laminar flow), the volume

flowrate is given by the pressure difference divided by
the viscous resistance. This resistance depends linearly
upon the viscosity and the length, but the fourth power
dependence upon the radius is dramatically different.
Poiseuille's law is found to be in reasonable agreement
with experiment for uniform liquids (called Newtonian
fluids) in cases where there is no appreciable turbulence.
Surface tension
The cohesive forces among the liquid molecules are
responsible for phenomenon of surface tension. In
the bulk of the liquid, each molecule is pulled
equally in every direction by neighboring liquid
molecules, resulting in a net force of zero. The
molecules at the surface do not have other
molecules on all sides of them and therefore are
pulled inwards. This creates some internal pressure
and forces liquid surfaces to contract to the minimal
area.
Surface tension is a property of the surface of a
liquid that allows it to resist an external force. It is
revealed in floating of some objects on the surface
of water, even though they are denser than water, in
the ability of some insects (e.g. water striders) to
run on the water surface.
Surface tension (in terms of energy)
Another way to view it is in terms of
energy. A molecule in contact with a
neighbor is in a lower state of energy than
if it were alone (not in contact with a
neighbor). The interior molecules have as
many neighbors as they can possibly
have, but the boundary molecules are
missing neighbors (compared to interior
molecules) and therefore have a higher
energy. For the liquid to minimize its
energy state, the number of higher energy
boundary molecules must be minimized. Water beading on a
The minimized quantity of boundary leaf
molecules results in a minimized surface
area.
Two definitions
There is a flat soap film bounded on one
side by a taut thread of length, L. Surface
tension, represented by the symbol σ is
defined as the force along a line of unit
length, where the force is tangent to the
surface but perpendicular to the line. The Diagram shows, in cross-section, a
thread will be pulled toward the interior of needle floating on the surface of
the film by a force equal to 2σL (the factor water. Its weight, Fw, depresses the
of 2 is because the soap film has two sides, surface, and is balanced by the
hence two surfaces).Surface tension is surface tension forces on either side,
therefore measured in forces per unit length. Fs, which are each parallel to the
An equivalent definition is work done per water's surface at the points where it
unit area. As such, in order to increase the contacts the needle. Notice that the
surface area a quantity of work A is needed. horizontal components of the two Fs
This work is stored as potential energy. arrows point in opposite directions,
Since mechanical systems try to find a state so they cancel each other, but the
of minimum potential energy, a free droplet vertical components point in the same
of liquid naturally assumes a spherical direction and therefore add up to
shape, which has the minimum surface area balance Fw.
for a given volume.
Surface curvature and pressure
LaPlace's Law
 1 1 
pL     
R R 
 x y 
p is the pressure
σ is surface tension.
Rx and Ry are radii of
curvature in each of the axes
that are parallel to the surface
Cohesion and Adhesion
Molecules liquid state experience
strong intermolecular attractive
forces. When those forces are
between like molecules, they are
referred to as cohesive forces.
When the attractive forces are
between unlike molecules, they
are said to be adhesive forces.
The adhesive forces between
water molecules and the walls of Forces at contact point shown for contact
a glass tube are stronger than the angle greater than 90° (left) and less
than 90° (right)
cohesive forces lead to an
upward turning meniscus at the
walls of the vessel and contribute
to capillary action.
Capillary Action
Capillary action is the result of

adhesion and surface tension.
Adhesion of water to the walls of a
vessel will cause an upward force
on the liquid at the edges and result
in a meniscus which turns upward.
The surface tension acts to hold the
surface intact, so instead of just the
edges moving upward, the whole
liquid surface is dragged upward.
Capillary Action
Capillary action is the result of
adhesion and surface tension.
Adhesion of water to the walls of a
vessel will cause an upward force
on the liquid at the edges and result
in a meniscus which turns upward.
The surface tension acts to hold the
surface intact, so instead of just the
edges moving upward, the whole
liquid surface is dragged upward.
Thank you for your attention !

Fluids

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Lecture

 Ideal fluid . Viscous fluid. Stationary flow

Under conditions of laminar flow in a viscous fluid, the velocity

• In the case of smooth flow (laminar flow), the volume

Capillary action is the result of

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