Powder Metallurgy: ©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e

16.
Powder Metallurgy
1. The Characterization of Engineering Powders
2. Production of Metallic Powders
3. Conventional Pressing and Sintering
4. Alternative Pressing and Sintering Techniques
5. Materials and Products for PM
6. Design Considerations in Powder Metallurgy
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Powder Metallurgy
Powder Metallurgy (PM)
Metal processing technology in which parts are
produced from metallic powders
 Usual PM production sequence:
1. Pressing - powders are compressed into
desired shape to produce green compact
 Accomplished in press using punch-and-
die tooling designed for the part
2. Sintering – green compacts are heated to
bond the particles into a hard, rigid mass
 Performed at temperatures below the
melting point of the metal
Why Powder Metallurgy is Important
 PM parts can be mass produced to net shape
or near net shape, eliminating or reducing the
need for subsequent machining
 PM process wastes very little material - ~ 97%
of starting powders are converted to product
 PM parts can be made with a specified level of
porosity, to produce porous metal parts
 Examples: filters, oil‑impregnated bearings
and gears
More Reasons Why PM is Important
 Certain metals that are difficult to fabricate by
other methods can be shaped by powder
metallurgy
 Tungsten filaments for lamp bulbs are made
by PM
 Certain alloy combinations and cermets made
by PM cannot be produced in other ways
 PM compares favorably to most casting
processes in dimensional control
 PM production methods can be automated for
economical production
Limitations and Disadvantages
 High tooling and equipment costs
 Metallic powders are expensive
 Problems in storing and handling metal powders
 Degradation over time, fire hazards with
certain metals
 Limitations on part geometry because metal
powders do not readily flow laterally in the die
during pressing
 Variations in density throughout part may be a
problem, especially for complex geometries
PM Work Materials
 Largest tonnage of metals are alloys of iron, steel, and
aluminum
 Other PM metals include copper, nickel, and refractory metals
such as molybdenum and tungsten
 Metallic carbides such as tungsten carbide are often included
within the scope of powder metallurgy
PM Parts
Figure 16.1 A collection of powder metallurgy parts (photo

courtesy of Dorst America, Inc.).
Engineering Powders
A powder can be defined as a finely divided
particulate solid
 Engineering powders include metals and
ceramics
 Geometric features of engineering powders:
 Particle size and distribution
 Particle shape and internal structure
 Surface area
Measuring Particle Size
 Most common method uses screens of
different mesh sizes
 Mesh count - refers to the number of openings
per linear inch of screen
 A mesh count of 200 means there are 200
openings per linear inch
 Since the mesh is square, the count is equal
in both directions, and the total number of
openings per square inch is 2002 = 40,000
 Higher mesh count = smaller particle size
Screen Mesh
Figure 16.2 Screen mesh for sorting particle sizes
Screen Mesh
The particle size
1
PS   tw
MC
where MC = mesh count, openings per linear in.; tw = wire
thickness of screen mesh, in.
Over the range of mesh sizes common in powder
Screening method has a practical upper limit of MC = 400

(approx.) – due to difficulty in making such fine screens and
because agglomeration of small powders.
Methods to measure particle size – microscopy, X-rays

Particle Shapes in PM
Figure 16.3 Several of the possible (ideal) particle shapes in powder

metallurgy
Surface Area
 For perfect sphere
D 3 A 6
A  D 2
V  
6 V D
 In general,
A Ks AD
 Ks 
V D V
or
 where Ks = shape factor; and D in general case =

the diameter of a sphere of equivalent volume as
the nonspherical particle, (mm).
 For sphere Ks = 6.0; for particle shapes other
than spherical Ks > 6.
Interparticle Friction and Powder Flow
 Friction between particles affects ability of a
powder to flow readily and pack tightly
 A common test of interparticle friction is the
angle of repose, which is the angle formed by
a pile of powders as they are poured from a
narrow funnel
Angle of Repose
Figure 16.4 Interparticle friction as indicated by the angle of repose

of a pile of powders poured from a narrow funnel. Larger angles
indicate greater interparticle friction
Observations
 Smaller particle sizes generally show greater
friction and steeper angles
 Spherical shapes have the lowest interpartical
friction
 As shape deviates from spherical, friction
between particles tends to increase
 Easier flow of particles correlates with lower
interparticle friction
 Lubricants are often added to powders to reduce
interparticle friction and facilitate flow during
pressing
Particle Density Measures
 True density - density of the true volume of the
material
 The density of the material if the powders
were melted into a solid mass
 Bulk density - density of the powders in the
loose state after pouring
 Because of pores between particles, bulk
density is less than true density
Packing Factor
Bulk density divided by true density
 Typical values for loose powders range
between 0.5 and 0.7
 If powders of various sizes are present, smaller
powders will fit into spaces between larger
ones, thus higher packing factor
 Packing can be increased by vibrating the
powders, causing them to settle more tightly
 Pressure applied during compaction greatly
increases packing of powders through
rearrangement and deformation of particles
Porosity
Ratio of volume of the pores (empty spaces) in
the powder to the bulk volume
 In principle
Porosity + Packing factor = 1.0
 The issue is complicated by possible existence
of closed pores in some of the particles
 If internal pore volumes are included in above
porosity, then equation is exact
Chemistry and Surface Films
 Metallic powders are classified as either
 Elemental - consisting of a pure metal
 Pre-alloyed - each particle is an alloy
 Possible surface films include oxides, silica,
adsorbed organic materials, and moisture
 As a general rule, these films must be
removed prior to shape processing
Powder Metallurgy
Production of Metallic Powders
 In general, producers of metallic powders are
not the same companies as those that make
PM parts
 Any metal can be made into powder form
 Three principal methods by which metallic
powders are commercially produced
1. Atomization
2. Chemical
3. Electrolytic
 In addition, mechanical methods are
occasionally used to reduce powder sizes
Gas Atomization Method
High velocity gas stream flows through
expansion nozzle, siphoning molten metal
from below and spraying it into container
Figure 16.5 (a) gas

atomization method
Iron Powders for PM
Figure 16.6 Iron powders produced by decomposition of iron

pentacarbonyl (photo courtesy of GAF Chemical Corp);
particle sizes range from about 0.25 ‑ 3.0 microns (10 to 125
-in).

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16.

Figure 16.1 A collection of powder metallurgy parts (photo

Figure 16.2 Screen mesh for sorting particle sizes

Screening method has a practical upper limit of MC = 400

Methods to measure particle size – microscopy, X-rays

Figure 16.3 Several of the possible (ideal) particle shapes in powder

 where Ks = shape factor; and D in general case =

Figure 16.4 Interparticle friction as indicated by the angle of repose

Figure 16.5 (a) gas

Figure 16.6 Iron powders produced by decomposition of iron

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