Part 5 Manufacturing 2023

Part 5: Particulate processing of
metals and ceramics
Contents:
Characterization of engineering powders, production of metallic powders,
conventional pressing and sintering, alternative pressing and sintering
methods, materials and products for powder metallurgy, design
consideration in powder metallurgy, processing of new ceramics,
processing of cermets, product design considerations.
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Why Powder Metallurgy is
Important
▪ PM parts can be mass produced to net shape or near

net shape, eliminating or reducing the need for
subsequent machining
▪ PM process wastes very little material - ~ 97% of
starting powders are converted to product
▪ PM parts can be made with a specified level of
porosity, to produce porous metal parts
▪ Filters, oil-impregnated bearings and gears
More Reasons Why PM is
Important
▪ Certain metals that are difficult to fabricate by other
methods can be shaped by powder metallurgy
▪ Tungsten filaments for incandescent lamp bulbs
are made by PM
▪ Certain alloy combinations and cermets made by PM
cannot be produced in other ways
▪ PM compares favorably to most casting processes in
dimensional control
▪ PM production methods can be automated for
economical production
Limitations and Disadvantages
▪ High tooling and equipment costs

▪ Metallic powders are expensive
▪ Problems in storing and handling metal powders
▪ Degradation over time, fire hazards with certain
metals
▪ Limitations on part geometry because metal powders do
not readily flow laterally in the die during pressing
▪ Variations in density throughout part may be a problem,
especially for complex geometries
PM Work Materials
▪ Largest tonnage of metals are alloys of iron, steel,

and aluminum
▪ Other PM metals include copper, nickel, and
refractory metals (molybdenum, tungsten)
▪ Metallic carbides such as tungsten carbide (WC) are
often included within the scope of powder metallurgy
Collection of PM Parts (courtesy
of Dorst America, Inc.)
Engineering Powders
▪ A powder can be defined as a finely divided

particulate solid
▪ Engineering powders include metals and ceramics
▪ Geometric features of engineering powders:
▪ Particle size and distribution
▪ Particle shape and internal structure
▪ Surface area
Measuring Particle Size
▪ Most common method uses screens of different

mesh sizes
▪ Mesh count - refers to the number of openings per
linear inch of screen
▪ A mesh count of 200 means there are 200
openings per linear inch
▪ Since the mesh is square, the count is equal in
both directions, and the total number of openings
per square inch is 2002 = 40,000
▪ Higher mesh count = smaller particle size
Screen Mesh for Sorting Particle
Sizes
Particle Shapes in PM
Observations About
Interparticle Friction
▪ Smaller particle sizes generally
show greater friction and steeper
angles
▪ Spherical shapes have the lowest
interpartical friction
▪ As shape deviates from spherical,
friction between particles tends to
increase
▪ Easier flow of particles correlates
with lower interparticle friction
▪ Lubricants are often added to
powders to reduce interparticle Flowability test for
friction and facilitate flow during interparticle friction
pressing
Particle Density Measures
▪ True density - density of the true volume of the

material
▪ The density of the material if the powders were
melted into a solid mass
▪ Bulk density - density of the powders in the loose
state after pouring
▪ Because of pores between particles, bulk density
is less than true density
Packing Factor = Bulk Density
Divided by True Density Relative density
▪ Typical values for loose powders are 0.5 to 0.7

▪ If powders of various sizes are present, smaller
powders fit into spaces between larger ones
▪ Thus higher packing factor
▪ Packing can be increased by vibrating the powders,
causing them to settle more tightly
▪ Thus higher packing factor
▪ Pressure applied during compaction greatly
increases packing factor of powders
Porosity
▪ Ratio of volume of the pores (empty spaces) in the

powder to the bulk volume
▪ In principle, Porosity + Packing factor = 1.0
▪ The issue is complicated by possible existence
of closed pores in some of the particles
▪ If internal pore volumes are included in above
porosity, then equation is exact
Chemistry and Surface Films
▪ Metallic powders are classified as either

▪ Elemental - consisting of a pure metal
▪ Pre-alloyed - each particle is an alloy
▪ Possible surface films include oxides, silica,
adsorbed organic materials, and moisture
▪ As a general rule, these films must be removed
prior to shape processing
Production of Metallic Powders
▪ In general, producers of metallic powders are not the

same companies as those that make PM parts
▪ Any metal can be made into powder form
▪ Three principal methods by which metallic powders
are commercially produced
1. Atomization
2. Chemical
3. Electrolytic
▪ In addition, 4. mechanical methods are occasionally
used to reduce powder sizes
Gas Atomization Method
▪ High velocity gas stream flows through expansion nozzle,

siphoning molten metal and spraying it into chamber
Water Atomization Method
▪ High velocity water

streams flow
through nozzles,
rapidly cooling and
solidifying molten
metal into collection
chamber
Iron Powders for PM
▪ Iron powders
produced by
water atomization
(photo courtesy of
T.F.Murphy and
Hoeganaes
Corporation)
Conventional Press and Sinter
▪ Conventional PM part-making sequence consists of:

1. Blending and mixing of powders
2. Compaction - pressing into desired shape
3. Sintering - heating to temperature below melting
point to cause solid-state bonding of particles and
strengthening of part
▪ In addition, 4. Secondary operations are
sometimes performed to improve dimensional
accuracy, increase density, and for other reasons
Conventional PM Production
Sequence
▪ (1) Blending, (2) compacting, and (3) sintering
Blending and Mixing of Powders
▪ For successful results in compaction and sintering,

the starting powders must be homogenized
▪ Blending - powders of the same chemistry but
possibly different particle sizes are intermingled
▪ Different particle sizes are often blended to
reduce porosity
▪ Mixing - powders of different chemistries are
combined
Compaction
▪ Application of high pressure to the powders to form

them into the required shape
▪ Conventional compaction method is pressing, in
which opposing punches squeeze the powders
contained in a die
▪ Work part after pressing is called a green compact,
the word green meaning not fully processed
▪ The green strength of the part when pressed is okay
for handling but far less than after sintering
Conventional Pressing in PM
▪ Pressing in PM: (1)

filling die cavity with
powder by automatic
feeder; (2) initial and
(3) final positions of
upper and lower
punches during
pressing, (4) part
ejection
▪ 450 kN (50-ton)
hydraulic press for
conventional
pressing of PM
parts (photo
courtesy of Dorst
America, Inc.).
Sintering
▪ Heat treatment to bond the metallic particles, thereby

increasing strength and hardness
▪ Usually carried out at 70% to 90% of the metal's
melting point (absolute scale)
▪ Generally agreed among researchers that the
primary driving force for sintering is reduction of
surface energy
▪ Part shrinkage occurs during sintering due to pore
size reduction
Skiped
Sintering Sequence on a
Microscopic Scale
▪ (1) Particle bonding initiated at contact points; (2) contact
points grow into "necks"; (3) pores between particles are
reduced in size; (4) grain boundaries develop between
particles in place of necked regions
Sintering Cycle and Furnace
▪ (a) Typical heat

treatment cycle in
sintering; and (b)
schematic cross
section of a
continuous
sintering furnace
Densification and Sizing
▪ Secondary operations are performed on sintered part to

increase density, improve accuracy, or accomplish
additional shaping
▪ Repressing - pressing in closed die to increase
density and improve properties
▪ Sizing - pressing to improve dimensional accuracy
▪ Coining - pressing details into its surface
▪ Machining - for geometric features that cannot be
formed by pressing, such as threads and side holes
Impregnation and Infiltration
▪ Porosity is a unique and inherent characteristic of

PM technology
▪ It can be exploited to create special products by
filling the available pore space with oils, polymers, or
metals
▪ Two categories:
1. Impregnation
2. Infiltration
Impregnation
▪ The term used when oil or other fluid is permeated

into the pores of a sintered PM part
▪ Common products are oil-impregnated bearings,
gears, and similar components
▪ Alternative application is when parts are
impregnated with polymer resins that seep into the
pore spaces in liquid form and then solidify to
create a pressure tight part
Infiltration
▪ Operation in which the pores of the PM part are filled

with a molten metal
▪ The melting point of the filler metal must be below
that of the PM part
▪ Heating filler metal in contact with the sintered part
so capillary action draws the filler into pores
▪ Resulting structure is nonporous, and the
infiltrated part has a more uniform density, as
well as improved toughness and strength
Alternative Pressing and
Sintering Techniques
▪ Conventional press and sinter sequence is the most

widely used shaping technology in powder metallurgy
▪ Some additional methods for producing PM parts:
▪ Isostatic pressing - hydraulic pressure is applied
from all directions to achieve compaction
▪ Powder injection molding (PIM) - starting polymer
has 50% to 85% powder content
▪ Polymer is removed and PM part is sintered
▪ Hot pressing - combined pressing and sintering
Materials and Products for PM
▪ Raw materials for PM are more expensive than for

other metalworking because of the additional energy
required to reduce the metal to powder form
▪ Accordingly, PM is competitive only in a certain range
of applications
▪ What are the materials and products that seem most
suited to powder metallurgy?
Skiped
PM Materials –
Elemental Powders
▪ A pure metal in particulate form

▪ Common elemental powders:
▪ Iron
▪ Aluminum
▪ Copper
▪ Elemental powders can be mixed with other metal
powders to produce alloys that are difficult to
formulate by conventional methods
▪ Example: tool steels
Skiped
PM Materials –
Pre-Alloyed Powders
▪ Each particle is an alloy comprised of the desired

chemical composition
▪ Common pre-alloyed powders:
▪ Stainless steels
▪ Certain copper alloys
▪ High speed steel
Skiped
PM Products
▪ Gears, bearings, sprockets, fasteners, electrical

contacts, cutting tools, and various machinery parts
▪ Advantage of PM: parts can be made to near net
shape or net shape
▪ When produced in large quantities, gears and bearings
are ideal for PM because:
▪ Their geometries are defined in two dimensions
▪ There is a need for porosity in the part to serve as
a reservoir for lubricant
Skiped
PM Parts Classification System
▪ The Metal Powder Industries Federation (MPIF)

defines four classes of powder metallurgy part
designs, by level of difficulty in conventional pressing
▪ Useful because it indicates some of the limitations
on shape that can be achieved with conventional
PM processing
Four Classes of PM Parts
▪ (a) Class I Simple thin shapes; (b) Class II Simple but

thicker; (c) Class III Two levels of thickness; and (d) Class
IV Multiple levels of thickness
Design Guidelines
for PM Parts - I
▪ Large quantities required to justify cost of equipment

and special tooling
▪ Minimum quantities of 10,000 units suggested
▪ PM is unique in its capability to fabricate parts with a
controlled level of porosity
▪ Porosities up to 50% are possible
▪ PM can be used to make parts out of unusual metals
and alloys
▪ Materials that are difficult if not impossible to
produce by other means
Design Guidelines
for PM Parts - II
▪ Part geometry must permit ejection from die

▪ Part must have vertical or near-vertical sides,
although steps are allowed
▪ Design features on part sides like holes and
undercuts must be avoided
▪ Vertical undercuts and holes are permissible
because they do not interfere with ejection
▪ Vertical holes can have cross-sectional shapes
other than round without significant difficulty
Side Holes and Undercuts
▪ Part features to be avoided in PM: (a) side holes and

(b) side undercuts since part ejection is impossible
Design Guidelines
for PM Parts - III
▪ Screw threads cannot be fabricated by PM

▪ They must be machined into the part
▪ Chamfers and corner radii are possible in PM
▪ But problems occur in punch rigidity when angles
are too acute
▪ Wall thickness should be a minimum of 1.5 mm
(0.060 in) between holes or a hole and outside wall
▪ Minimum hole diameter ~ 1.5 mm (0.060 in)
Chamfers and Corner Radii
▪ (a) Avoid acute angles; (b) use larger angles for punch
rigidity; (c) inside radius is desirable; (d) avoid full outside
corner radius because punch is fragile at edge; (e) better
to combine radius and chamfer
PARTICULATE PROCESSING OF
CERAMICS AND CERMETS
1. Processing of Traditional Ceramics

2. Processing of New Ceramics
3. Processing of Cermets
4. Product Design Considerations
Types of Ceramics and Their
Processing
▪ Ceramic materials divide into three categories:

1. Traditional ceramics – particulate processing
2. New or advanced ceramics – particulate processing
3. Glasses – solidification processing
▪ Particulate processes for traditional and new ceramics
as well as certain composite materials are covered in
this slide set
▪ Solidification processes for glasses are covered in the
Chapter 12 slide set
Ceramics Processing Overview
▪ Traditional ceramics are made from minerals

occurring in nature
▪ Products: pottery, porcelain, bricks, and cement
▪ New (Advanced, Engineering) ceramics are made
from synthetically produced raw materials
▪ Products: cutting tools, artificial bones, nuclear
fuels, substrates for electronic circuits
▪ Starting material for these products is powder
Ceramics Processing Overview
▪ For traditional ceramics

▪ Powders are mixed with water to bind them together
and achieve proper consistency for shaping
(cementation)
▪ For new ceramics
▪ Substances other than water are used as binders
during shaping
▪ After shaping, green part is fired or sintered
▪ Function is the same as in PM - to effect a solid state
reaction that bonds the particles into a hard mass
Processing Overview for
Traditional Ceramics 19-10-2022
▪ Condition of powders and part during (1) preparation of
raw materials (comminution + wetting), (2) shaping, (3)
drying, and (4) firing
Preparation of Raw Materials in
Traditional Ceramics Processing
▪ Most shaping processes for traditional ceramics

require the starting material to be a plastic paste
▪ This paste is comprised of fine ceramic powders
mixed with water
▪ The starting raw ceramic material usually occurs in
nature as rocky lumps
▪ Purpose of the preparation step is to reduce the
rocky lumps to powder
Comminution
▪ Reducing particle size in ceramics processing by using

mechanical energy in various forms such as impact,
compression, and attrition
▪ Comminution techniques are most effective on brittle
materials such as cement and metallic ores
▪ Two general types of comminution operations:
▪ Crushing
▪ Grinding
Crushing
▪ Reduction of large lumps from the mine to smaller

sizes for subsequent further reduction
▪ Several stages may be required (e.g., primary
crushing, secondary crushing)
▪ Reduction ratio in each stage is 3 to 6 times
▪ Crushing of minerals is accomplished by
▪ Compression against rigid surfaces or
▪ Impact against surfaces
Jaw Crusher
▪ Large jaw toggles

back and forth to
crush lumps
against a hard,
rigid surface
Roll Crusher
▪ Ceramic lumps are

squeezed between
rotating rolls
Grinding
▪ In the context of comminution, grinding refers to the

reduction of small pieces after crushing to fine powder
▪ Accomplished by abrasion, impact, and/or
compaction by hard media such as balls or rolls
▪ Examples of grinding include:
▪ Ball mill
▪ Roller mill
▪ Impact grinding
Ball Mill
▪ Hard spheres mixed

with stock are
rotated inside large
cylindrical container
▪ Mixture is carried
upwards in container
as it rotates, then
dropped by gravity
to accomplish
grinding action
Roller Mill
▪ Stock is compressed
against flat horizontal
table by rollers riding
on the table surface
Main Ingredients of
Ceramic Paste
1. Clay
▪ Chemistry = hydrous aluminum silicates
▪ Usually the main ingredient because of ideal
forming characteristics when mixed with water
2. Water
▪ Creates clay-water mixture with good plasticity for
shaping
Additional Ingredients of
Ceramic Paste
3. Non-plastic raw materials

▪ Such as alumina and silica
▪ Purpose is to reduce shrinkage in drying and
firing but also reduces plasticity during forming
4. Other ingredients
▪ Such as fluxes that melt (vitrify) during firing and
promote sintering
▪ Wetting agents to improve mixing of ingredients
Shaping Processes
▪ Slip casting
▪ The clay-water mixture is a slurry
▪ Plastic forming methods
▪ The clay is plastic
▪ Semi-dry pressing
▪ The clay is moist but has low plasticity
▪ Dry pressing
▪ The clay is basically dry (less than 5% water) and
has no plasticity
Effect of Water Content in
Shaping Processes
Slip Casting
▪ Suspension of ceramic powders in water, called a slip,

is poured into porous plaster of paris mold
▪ Water from the mix is absorbed into the plaster to
form a firm layer of clay at the mold surface
▪ Slip composition is 25% to 40% water
▪ Two principal variations:
▪ Drain casting - mold is inverted to drain excess
slip after semi-solid layer has formed
▪ Solid casting - adequate time is allowed for entire
body to become firm
Drain Casting
▪ (1) Slip is poured into mold cavity, (2) water is absorbed into
plaster mold to form a firm layer, (3) excess slip is poured out,
and (4) part is removed from mold
Overview of Plastic Forming
▪ Starting mixture must have a plastic consistency

▪ Composition 15% to 25% water
▪ Variety of manual and mechanized methods
▪ Manual methods use clay with more water
because it is more easily formed
▪ Mechanized methods generally use clay with less
water so starting clay is stiffer
Plastic Forming Methods
▪ Hand modeling (manual method)

▪ Jiggering (mechanized method)
▪ Plastic pressing (mechanized method)
▪ Extrusion (mechanized method)
Hand Modeling
▪ Fabrication of ceramic product by manipulating plastic

clay into desired geometry
▪ Hand molding - a mold or form is used to define
portions of the part geometry
▪ Hand throwing on a potter's wheel
▪ Potter's wheel - a round table that rotates on a
vertical spindle
▪ Products of circular cross section can be formed
by throwing and shaping the clay, sometimes
using a mold to provide the internal shape
Skiped
Jiggering
▪ (1) Wet clay slug is placed on a convex mold; (2) batting;

and (3) a jigger tool imparts the final product shape
Skiped
Plastic Pressing
▪ Forming process in which plastic clay slug is pressed

between upper and lower molds
▪ Molds are made of porous material, so when a
vacuum is drawn on the backs of the mold halves,
moisture is removed from the clay
▪ Mold sections are then opened, using positive air
pressure to prevent sticking of part in the mold
▪ Advantages: higher production rate than jiggering
and not limited to radially symmetric parts
Skiped
Extrusion
▪ Compression of clay through die orifice to produce long

sections of uniform cross section, which are then cut to
required piece length
▪ Equipment utilizes a screw-type action to assist in
mixing the clay and pushing it through die opening
▪ Products: hollow bricks, shaped tiles, drain pipes,
tubes, and insulators
▪ Also used to make starting slugs for jiggering and
plastic pressing
Skiped
Semi-dry Pressing
▪ (1) Deposit
moist powder
in die cavity,
(2) press at
high pressure,
and (3) open
die sections
and eject part
Dry Pressing
▪ Process sequence similar to semi-dry pressing

▪ Except water content of starting mix is < 5%
▪ Dies made of hardened tool steel or cemented
carbide to reduce wear due to abrasive dry clay
▪ No drying shrinkage occurs
▪ Drying time is eliminated and good accuracy is
achieved in final product
▪ Products: bathroom tile, electrical insulators,
refractory brick, and other simple geometries
Drying
▪ Drying process occurs in two stages

▪ Stage 1 - Drying rate is rapid as water evaporates
from surface into surrounding air and interior water
migrates by capillary action to surface to replace it
▪ This is when volumetric shrinkage occurs, with
the risk of warping and cracking
▪ Stage 2 - Moisture content has been reduced to
where the ceramic grains are in contact
▪ Little or no further volumetric shrinkage
Firing of Traditional Ceramics
▪ Heat treatment process to sinter the ceramic material

▪ Performed in a furnace called a kiln
▪ Bonds are developed between ceramic grains
▪ This is accompanied by densification and
reduction of porosity
▪ Additional shrinkage occurs in the polycrystalline
material in addition to that which has already
occurred in drying
▪ In firing of traditional ceramics, a glassy phase forms
among the crystals that acts as a binder
Glazing
▪ Application of a ceramic surface coating to make the

piece more impervious to water and enhance its
appearance
▪ Usual processing sequence with glazed ware:
1. Fire the piece once before glazing to harden
the body of the piece
2. Apply glaze
3. Fire the piece a second time to harden glaze
Processing of New Ceramics
(advanced)
▪ Manufacturing sequence for new ceramics can be

summarized in the following steps:
1. Preparation of starting materials
2. Shaping
3. Sintering
4. Finishing
▪ While the sequence is nearly the same as for the
traditional ceramics, the details are often quite
different
New Ceramics: Preparation of
Starting Materials
▪ Strength requirements are usually much greater for
new ceramics than for traditional ceramics
▪ Starting powders must be smaller and more uniform
in size and composition (absence of impurities), since
the strength of the resulting ceramic product is
inversely related to grain size
▪ Greater control over the starting powders is
required
▪ Powder preparation includes mechanical and
chemical methods
Shaping of New Ceramics
▪ Many of the shaping processes are borrowed from

powder metallurgy (PM) and traditional ceramics
▪ PM press and sinter methods have been adapted to
the new ceramic materials
▪ and some of the traditional ceramics forming techniques
are used to shape the new ceramics
▪ Slip casting New ceramics forming techniqus
▪ Extrusion --Hot pressing
--Isostatic pressing
▪ Dry pressing
--Injection molding
Hot Pressing
▪ Similar to dry pressing

▪ Except it is carried out at elevated temperatures
so sintering of the product is accomplished
simultaneously with pressing
▪ Eliminates the need for a separate firing step
▪ Higher densities and finer grain size are obtained
▪ But die life is reduced by the hot abrasive
particles against the die surfaces
Isostatic Pressing
▪ Uses hydrostatic pressure to compact the ceramic

powders from all directions
▪ Avoids the problem of non-uniform density in the
final product that is often observed in
conventional uniaxial pressing
▪ Same process used in powder metallurgy
Powder Injection Molding (PIM)
▪ Ceramic particles are mixed with a thermoplastic,

then heated and injected into a mold cavity
▪ Polymer acts as a carrier and provides flow
characteristics for molding
▪ Upon cooling which hardens the polymer, the
mold is opened and part is removed
▪ The plastic binder is removed and the remaining
ceramic part is sintered
Sintering of New Ceramics
▪ Because the plasticity needed to shape the new

ceramics is not normally based on water, the drying
step required for traditional green ceramics is
omitted for most new ceramic products
▪ Sintering step is still very much required
▪ Functions of sintering are the same as before:
1. Bond individual grains into a solid mass
2. Increase density
3. Reduce or eliminate porosity
Finishing Operations for New
Ceramics
▪ Parts made of new ceramics sometimes require

finishing, with one or more of the following purposes:
1. Increase dimensional accuracy
2. Improve surface finish
3. Make minor changes in part geometry
▪ Finishing usually involves abrasive processes
▪ Diamond abrasives must be used to cut the
hardened ceramic materials
Cemented Carbides
▪ A family of composite materials consisting of carbide

ceramic particles imbedded in a metallic binder
▪ Classified as metal matrix composites because
the metallic binder is the matrix that holds the bulk
material together
▪ However, the carbide particles constitute the
largest proportion of the composite material
▪ Normally between 80% and 95% by volume
Binders for Cemented Carbides
▪ Carbide powders must be sintered with a metal

binder to provide a strong and pore-free part
▪ e.g. Cobalt works best with WC
▪ Percentage of binder metal is 4% up to 20%
▪ Powders of carbide and binder are thoroughly mixed
wet in a ball mill to form a homogeneous sludge
▪ The sludge is then dried in a vacuum or controlled
atmosphere to prevent oxidation before compaction
Skiped
Compaction Dies
▪ Most common process is cold pressing, used for

high production of cemented carbide parts such as
cutting tool inserts:
▪ Dies must be oversized to account for shrinkage
during sintering
▪ For high production, dies are made with WC-Co
liners to reduce wear
▪ For smaller quantities, large flat sections may be
pressed and then cut into smaller pieces
Secondary Operations
▪ Subsequent processing is usually required after

sintering to achieve adequate dimensional control of
the cemented carbide parts
▪ Grinding with a diamond or other very hard abrasive
wheel is the most common secondary operation
performed for this purpose
▪ Other secondary operations for shaping include
▪ Electric discharge machining
▪ Ultrasonic machining
Sintering of WC-Co
▪ Possible to sinter WC without a metal binder, but the

resulting material is less than 100% of true density
▪ Using a binder yields a structure virtually free of
porosity
▪ Sintering of WC-Co is liquid phase sintering
▪ Usual sintering temperatures for WC-Co are
1370-1425C, which is below cobalt's melting point
of 1495C
▪ Thus, the pure binder metal does not melt at the
sintering temperature
Skiped
Sintering of WC-Co
▪ WC is gradually dissolved in Co during sintering, and

its melting point is reduced so melting does occur
▪ As liquid phase forms, it flows and wets the WC
particles, further dissolving the solid
▪ Molten metal also serves to remove gases from
the internal regions of the compact
▪ These mechanisms cause rearrangement of the
remaining WC particles into a closer packing
▪ Results in significant densification and shrinkage
of the WC-Co mass
Skiped
WC-Co Phase Diagram
Summary
Shaping of particulate materials
Particulate processing:
Powder Metallurgy
Advantages-limitations
Powder characteristics and preparations
Processing routes
Additional processes
Product examples
Ceramics processing:
Conventional vs. Advanced Ceramics
Conventional Processes
New ceramic processes
Finishing operations
An example of advanced ceramics WC-Co Cutting tool production
Ceramics Fabrication Methods
Traditional and advanced ceramics
Traditional:
Based primarily on natural Examples:
Raw materials of clay and clay, glass, cement
silicates
Ceramics
Advanced:
Include artificial raw materials, Examples:
exhibit specialized properties, structural,
require more sophisticated electronic,
processing optical
Advanced ceramics for engines:

Top left to the right: Silicon nitride (Si3N4) turbocharger
Si3N4 valve, cast steel diesel engine rocker arm with
partially stabilized zirconia (PSZ) cam follower
and wear button, Si3N4 cam follower, and valve.
Bottom left to right: valve; silioccon carbide (SiC) water

pump seal; piston pin, valve spring retainer, and
valve guide of Si3N4; and PSZ diesel head plate
with integrated valve seats (ORNL)
Fabrication of cemented carbides
Cemented carbides
Cmented carbides : Bonded with

Tungsten carbide (WC) + Ni, Co, Cr, Mo, alloys
Titanium carbides (TiC)
Sintering
Sintered carbides
Light areas are carbide particles Sintered carbides are composite in
Dark area are cobalt binder
nature
and are called cermets.
Cermets usually termed when
carbides
bonded with steel
Cemented carbides when bonded
other
than steels (Co, Ni)

Part 5 Manufacturing 2023

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Part 5 Manufacturing 2023

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Part 5 Manufacturing 2023

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Part 5: Particulate processing of

metals and ceramics

▪ PM parts can be mass produced to net shape or near

▪ High tooling and equipment costs

▪ Largest tonnage of metals are alloys of iron, steel,

▪ A powder can be defined as a finely divided

▪ Most common method uses screens of different

▪ True density - density of the true volume of the

▪ Typical values for loose powders are 0.5 to 0.7

▪ Ratio of volume of the pores (empty spaces) in the

▪ Metallic powders are classified as either

▪ In general, producers of metallic powders are not the

▪ High velocity gas stream flows through expansion nozzle,

▪ High velocity water

▪ Conventional PM part-making sequence consists of:

▪ (1) Blending, (2) compacting, and (3) sintering

▪ For successful results in compaction and sintering,

▪ Application of high pressure to the powders to form

▪ Pressing in PM: (1)

▪ Heat treatment to bond the metallic particles, thereby

▪ (a) Typical heat

▪ Secondary operations are performed on sintered part to

▪ Porosity is a unique and inherent characteristic of

▪ The term used when oil or other fluid is permeated

▪ Operation in which the pores of the PM part are filled

▪ Conventional press and sinter sequence is the most

▪ Raw materials for PM are more expensive than for

▪ A pure metal in particulate form

▪ Each particle is an alloy comprised of the desired

▪ Gears, bearings, sprockets, fasteners, electrical

PM Parts Classification System

▪ The Metal Powder Industries Federation (MPIF)

▪ (a) Class I Simple thin shapes; (b) Class II Simple but

▪ Large quantities required to justify cost of equipment

▪ Part geometry must permit ejection from die

▪ Part features to be avoided in PM: (a) side holes and

▪ Screw threads cannot be fabricated by PM

1. Processing of Traditional Ceramics

▪ Ceramic materials divide into three categories:

▪ Traditional ceramics are made from minerals

▪ For traditional ceramics

▪ Most shaping processes for traditional ceramics

▪ Reducing particle size in ceramics processing by using

▪ Reduction of large lumps from the mine to smaller

▪ Large jaw toggles

▪ Ceramic lumps are

▪ In the context of comminution, grinding refers to the

▪ Hard spheres mixed

3. Non-plastic raw materials

▪ Suspension of ceramic powders in water, called a slip,

▪ Starting mixture must have a plastic consistency

▪ Hand modeling (manual method)

▪ Fabrication of ceramic product by manipulating plastic

▪ (1) Wet clay slug is placed on a convex mold; (2) batting;

▪ Forming process in which plastic clay slug is pressed

▪ Compression of clay through die orifice to produce long

▪ Process sequence similar to semi-dry pressing

▪ Drying process occurs in two stages

▪ Heat treatment process to sinter the ceramic material

▪ Application of a ceramic surface coating to make the