Sensors

SENSORS
Review of Electrical Sensors and Actuators

Transducers
• Transducer
– a device that converts a primary form of energy into a
corresponding signal with a different energy form
• Primary Energy Forms: mechanical, thermal, electromagnetic,
optical, chemical, etc.
– take form of a sensor or an actuator
• Sensor (e.g., thermometer)
– a device that detects/measures a signal or stimulus
– acquires information from the “real world”
• Actuator (e.g., heater)
– a device that generates a signal or stimulus
sensor intelligent
real
feedback
world actuator system
Sensor Systems
Typically interested in electronic sensor
– convert desired parameter into electrically measurable signal
• General Electronic Sensor
– primary transducer: changes “real world” parameter into
electrical signal
– secondary transducer: converts electrical signal into analog or
digital values
real primary analo secondary usable
world transducer g transducer values
signal
sensor
• Typical Electronic Sensor System

input
signal sensor data microcontroller network
(measurand)
sensor signal processing display
analog/digital
communication
Example Electronic Sensor Systems
• Components vary with application
– digital sensor within an instrument
• microcontroller sensor µC keypad
– signal timing sensor
signal timing
memory display
– data storage handheld instrument
– analog sensor analyzed by a PC

sensor interface e.g., RS232
PC
sensor A/D, communication
signal processing comm. card
– multiple sensors displayed

internet over internet
sensor sensor
sensor bus sensor bus
processor PC processor
comm. comm.
comm. card
Primary Transducers
• Conventional Transducers
large, but generally reliable, based on older technology
– thermocouple: temperature difference
– compass (magnetic): direction
• Microelectronic Sensors
millimeter sized, highly sensitive, less robust
– photodiode/phototransistor: photon energy (light)
• infrared detectors, proximity/intrusion alarms
– piezoresisitve pressure sensor: air/fluid pressure
– microaccelerometers: vibration, ∆-velocity (car crash)
– chemical senors: O2, CO2, Cl, Nitrates (explosives)
– DNA arrays: match DNA sequences
Example Primary Transducers
• Light Sensor
– photoconductor
• light  R
– photodiode
• light  I
– membrane pressure sensor

• resistive (pressure   R)
• capacitive (pressure  C)
Displacement Measurements
• Measurements of size, shape, and position utilize
displacement sensors
• Examples
– diameter of part under stress (direct)
– movement of a microphone diaphragm to quantify liquid
movement through the heart (indirect)
• Primary Transducer Types

– Resistive Sensors (Potentiometers & Strain Gages)
– Inductive Sensors
– Capacitive Sensors
– Piezoelectric Sensors
• Secondary Transducers
– Wheatstone Bridge
– Amplifiers
Strain Gage: Gage Factor
• Remember: for a strained thin wire
– R/R = L/L – A/A + /
• A =  (D/2)2, for circular wire
D L
• Poisson’s ratio, : relates change in diameter D to

change in length L
– D/D = - L/L
• Thus
– R/R = (1+2) L/L + /
dimensional effect piezoresistive effect
• Gage Factor, G, used to compare strain-gate materials
– G = R/R = (1+2) + /

L/L L/L
Temperature Sensor Options
• Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
– Platinum, Nickel, Copper metals are typically used
– positive temperature coefficients
• Thermistors (“thermally sensitive resistor”)
– formed from semiconductor materials, not metals
• often composite of a ceramic and a metallic oxide (Mn, Co, Cu or Fe)
– typically have negative temperature coefficients
• Thermocouples
– based on the Seebeck effect: dissimilar metals at diff. temps.  signal
Fiber-optic Temperature Sensor
• Sensor operation
– small prism-shaped sample of single-crystal undoped GaAs
attached to ends of two optical fibers
– light energy absorbed by the GaAs crystal depends on
temperature
– percentage of received vs. transmitted energy is a function of
temperature
• Can be made small enough for biological implantation
GaAs semiconductor temperature probe

Example MEMS Transducers
• MEMS = micro-electro-mechanical system
– miniature transducers created using IC fabrication processes
• Microaccelerometer
– cantilever beam
– suspended mass
Electrodes
• Rotation Ring
structure
– gyroscope
• Pressure Diaphragm (Upper electrode)
Lower electrode 5-10mm

Passive Sensor Readout Circuit
• Photodiode Circuits
• Thermistor Half-Bridge
– voltage divider
– one element varies
• Wheatstone Bridge
– R3 = resistive sensor
– R4 is matched to nominal value of R3 VCC
– If R1 = R2, Vout-nominal = 0
– Vout varies as R3 changes R1+R4
Connecting Sensors to Microcontrollers
sensor µC keypad
signal timing
sensor display
• Analog
memory
instrument
– many microcontrollers have a built-in A/D

• 8-bit to 12-bit common
• many have multi-channel A/D inputs
• Digital
– serial I/O
• use serial I/O port, store in memory to analyze
• synchronous (with clock)
– must match byte format, stop/start bits, parity check, etc.
• asynchronous (no clock): more common for comm. than data
– must match baud rate and bit width, transmission protocol, etc.
– frequency encoded
• use timing port, measure pulse width or pulse frequency
Connecting Smart Sensors to PC/Network
• “Smart sensor” = sensor with built-in signal processing & communication
– e.g., combining a “dumb sensor” and a microcontroller
• Data Acquisition Cards (DAQ)
– PC card with analog and digital I/O
– interface through LabVIEW or user-generated code
• Communication Links Common for Sensors
– asynchronous serial comm.
• universal asynchronous receive and transmit (UART)
– 1 receive line + 1 transmit line. nodes must match baud rate & protocol
• RS232 Serial Port on PCs uses UART format (but at +/- 12V)
– can buy a chip to convert from UART to RS232
– synchronous serial comm.

• serial peripheral interface (SPI)
– 1 clock + 1 bidirectional data + 1 chip select/enable
– I2C = Inter Integrated Circuit bus

• designed by Philips for comm. inside TVs, used in several commercial sensor systems
– IEEE P1451: Sensor Comm. Standard
• several different sensor comm. protocols for different applications
Sensor Calibration
• Sensors can exhibit non-ideal effects
– offset: nominal output ≠ nominal parameter value
– nonlinearity: output not linear with parameter changes
– cross parameter sensitivity: secondary output variation with, e.g.,
temperature
• Calibration = adjusting output to match parameter

– analog signal conditioning
– look-up table r
linea T1
– digital calibration
• T = a + bV +cV2, ar
non-line T2
– T= temperature; V=sensor voltage;
offset
– a,b,c = calibration coefficients
T3
• Compensation
– remove secondary sensitivities
– must have sensitivities characterized
– can remove with polynomial evaluation
• P = a + bV + cT + dVT + e V2, where P=pressure, T=temperature

Sensors

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Sensors

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Sensors

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

SENSORS

Review of Electrical Sensors and Actuators

• Typical Electronic Sensor System

– analog sensor analyzed by a PC

– multiple sensors displayed

– membrane pressure sensor

• Primary Transducer Types

• Poisson’s ratio, : relates change in diameter D to

• Gage Factor, G, used to compare strain-gate materials

– G = R/R = (1+2) + /

GaAs semiconductor temperature probe

• Pressure Diaphragm (Upper electrode)

Lower electrode 5-10mm

– many microcontrollers have a built-in A/D

– synchronous serial comm.

– I2C = Inter Integrated Circuit bus

• Calibration = adjusting output to match parameter

You might also like