31-Variation of Pressure with depth: 1

Pressure at a Point
Pressure is the compressive force per unit area, and it gives the impression of being a vector.
However, pressure at any point in a fluid is the same in all directions. That is, it has magnitude
but not a specific direction, and thus it is a scalar quantity.

Variation of Pressure with depth

Pressure in a fluid at rest does not change in the horizontal direction. However, this is not the
case in the vertical direction in a gravity field. Pressure in a fluid increases with depth because

more fluid rests on deeper layers, and the effect of this “extra weight” on a deeper layer is

balanced by an increase in pressure (Fig. 1).

FIGURE 1: The pressure of a fluid at rest increases with depth (as a result of added weight).

(ref. ‘Fluid Mechanics’ by Cengel & Cimbala)

32-Variation of Pressure with depth: 2
Case 1: Constant Density
To obtain a relation for the variation of pressure with depth, consider a rectangular fluid

element of height Δz, length Δx, and unit depth (Δy = 1) in equilibrium. Assuming the density of

the fluid 𝜌 to be constant, a force balance in the vertical z-direction gives

∑ 𝐹𝑧 = 𝑚 𝑎𝑧 = 0 ⇒ 𝑃1 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑦 − 𝑃2 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑦 − 𝜌𝑔∆𝑥 ∆𝑦∆𝑧 = 0

where 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 = 𝜌𝑔∆𝑥 ∆𝑦∆𝑧 is the weight of fluid element and ∆𝑧 = 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 . After some
simplification above relation goes to the following form

∆𝑃 = 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 = −𝜌𝑔∆𝑧 = −𝛾𝑠 ∆𝑧

where 𝛾𝑠 = 𝜌𝑔 being specific weight of the fluid. Thus, we conclude that the pressure difference

between two points in a constant density fluid is proportional to the vertical distance Δz between

the points and the density 𝜌 of the fluid. Noting the negative sign, pressure in a static fluid
increases linearly with depth. This is what a diver experiences when diving deeper in a lake.

An easier equation to remember and apply between any two points in the same fluid under
hydrostatic conditions is

𝑃below = 𝑃above + 𝜌𝑔|∆𝑧| = 𝑃above + 𝛾𝑠 |∆𝑧|

where “below” refers to the point at lower elevation (deeper in the fluid) and “above” refers to the

point at higher elevation. If we take the “above” point to be at the free surface of a liquid open to

the atmosphere, where the pressure is the atmospheric pressure 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 , then in the above equation
the pressure at a depth h below the free surface becomes

𝑃 = 𝑃atm + 𝜌𝑔ℎ or 𝑃gage = 𝜌𝑔ℎ

For a given fluid, the vertical distance Δz is sometimes used as a measure of pressure, and it is

called the pressure head.

(ref. ‘Fluid Mechanics’ by Cengel & Cimbala)
33-Variation of Pressure with depth: 3
Case 2: Variable Density
For fluids whose density changes significantly with elevation, a relation for the variation of
pressure with elevation can be obtained from the relation ∆𝑃 = −𝜌𝑔∆𝑧 as

∆𝑃 𝑑𝑝
lim = −𝜌𝑔 ⇒ = −𝜌𝑔
∆𝑧→0 ∆𝑧 𝑑𝑧

Note that dP is negative when dz is positive since pressure decreases in an upward direction.
When the variation of density with elevation is known, the pressure difference between any
two points 1 and 2 can be determined by integration to be

2
∆𝑃 = − ∫ 𝜌𝑔 𝑑𝑧
1

(ref. ‘Fluid Mechanics’ by Cengel & Cimbala)

34-Use of Pascal Law
Important Note
Pressure in a fluid at rest is independent of the shape or cross section of the container. It
changes with the vertical distance, but remains constant in other directions. Therefore, the
pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane in a given fluid.

Pascal Law
A consequence of the pressure in a fluid remaining constant in the horizontal direction is that
the pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the pressure throughout by the same amount.
This is called Pascal’s law.

Uses
Pascal also knew that the force applied by a fluid is proportional to the surface area. He realized
that two hydraulic cylinders of different areas could be connected, and the larger could be used

to exert a proportionally greater force than that applied to the smaller. “Pascal’s machine” has

been the source of many inventions that are a part of our daily lives such as hydraulic brakes
and lifts. This is what enables us to lift a car easily by one arm.

Noting that 𝑃1 = 𝑃2 since both pistons are at the same level (the effect of small height differences

is negligible, especially at high pressures), the ratio of output force to input force is determined to
be

𝐹1 𝐹2 𝐹2 𝐴2
𝑃1 = 𝑃2 → = → =
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐹1 𝐴1

The area ratio 𝐴2 /𝐴1 is called the ideal mechanical advantage of the hydraulic lift. Using a
hydraulic car jack with a piston area ratio of 𝐴2 /𝐴1 = 100, for example, a person can lift a 1000-
kg car by applying a force of just 10 kgf (= 90.8 N).

(ref. ‘Fluid Mechanics’ by Cengel & Cimbala)

35- The Manometer
Since we know that from the previous lectures

∆𝑃 = −𝜌𝑔∆𝑧

⇒ −∆𝑧 = ∆𝑃/𝜌𝑔

This equation suggests that a fluid column can be used to measure pressure differences. A device
based on this principle is called a manometer, and it is commonly used to measure small and
moderate pressure differences. A manometer consists of a glass or plastic U-tube containing
one or more fluids such as mercury, water, alcohol, or oil. To keep the size of the manometer
to a manageable level, heavy fluids such as mercury are used if large pressure differences are
anticipated.

Consider the manometer shown in Figure that is used to measure the pressure in the tank. Since
the gravitational effects of gases are negligible, the pressure anywhere in the tank and at position
1 has the same value. Furthermore, since pressure in a fluid does not vary in the horizontal
direction within a fluid, the pressure at point 2 is the same as the pressure at point 1, 𝑃2 = 𝑃1 .

The differential fluid column of height h is in static equilibrium, and it is open to the
atmosphere. Then the pressure at point 2 is given by

𝑃2 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ

where 𝜌 is the density of the manometer fluid in the tube.

Figure: The basic manometer.

(ref. ‘Fluid Mechanics’ by Cengel & Cimbala)

36- The Barometer and Atmospheric Pressure
Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer; thus, the atmospheric
pressure is often referred to as the barometric pressure.

The Italian Evangelista Torricelli (1608–1647) was the first to conclusively prove that the

atmospheric pressure can be measured by inverting a mercury-filled tube into a mercury

container that is open to the atmosphere, as shown in Figure. The pressure at point B is equal to
the atmospheric pressure, and the pressure at point C can be taken to be zero since there is only
mercury vapor above point C and the pressure is very low relative to 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 and can be neglected
to an excellent approximation. Writing a force balance in the vertical direction gives

𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ

where 𝜌 is the density of mercury, g is the local gravitational acceleration, and h is the height
of the mercury column above the free surface.

Note that the length and the cross-sectional area of the tube have no effect on the height of the
fluid column of a barometer.

Figure: The basic barometer.

(ref. ‘Fluid Mechanics’ by Cengel & Cimbala)

37- Buoyancy and Stability
It is a common experience that an object feels lighter and weighs less in a liquid than it does in
air. This can be demonstrated easily by weighing a heavy object in water by a waterproof
spring scale. Also, objects made of wood or other light materials float on water. These and other
observations suggest that a fluid exerts an upward force on a body immersed in it. This force
that tends to lift the body is called the buoyant force.

The buoyant force is caused by the increase of pressure with depth in a fluid. Mathematically,
it can be written as

𝐹𝐵 = 𝑔 𝜌𝑓 𝑉

(ref. ‘Fluid Mechanics’ by & Cimbala)

38- Stability of Immersed and Floating Bodies
Note that the upward buoyant force must be equal to the weight of the imaginary fluid
body whose volume is equal to the volume of the solid body. Further, the weight and the buoyant
force must have the same line of action to have a zero moment. This is known as Archimedes’

principle, after the Greek mathematician Archimedes (287–212 bc), and is expressed as

The buoyant force acting on a body of uniform density immersed in a fluid is equal to
the weight of the fluid displaced by the body, and it acts upward through the centroid of
the displaced volume.

For floating bodies, the weight of the entire body must be equal to the buoyant force,
which is the weight of the fluid whose volume is equal to the volume of the submerged portion
of the floating body. That is

𝐹𝐵 = 𝑊 → 𝑔 𝜌𝑓 𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑏 = 𝑔 𝜌𝑎𝑣𝑔,𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝜌𝑎𝑣𝑔,𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦
⇒ =
𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝜌𝑓

This follows that a body immersed in a fluid

(1) remains at rest at any location in the fluid where its average density is equal to the density
of the fluid,

(2) sinks to the bottom when its average density is greater than the density of the fluid, and

(3) rises to the surface of the fluid and floats when the average density of the body is less than
the density of the fluid.

(ref. ‘Fluid Mechanics’ by & Cimbala)

39- Fluid Kinematics: An Overview
Fluid kinematics deals with describing the motion of fluids without necessarily
considering the forces and moments that cause the motion. It is the study of how fluids flow and
how to describe fluid motion.

We introduce several kinematic concepts related to flowing fluids. We discuss the

material derivative and its role in transforming the conservation equations from the
Lagrangian description of fluid flow (following a fluid particle) to the Eulerian description of
fluid flow (pertaining to a flow field).

We will discuss various ways to visualize flow fields—streamlines, streaklines,

pathlines, timelines. We describe three ways to plot flow data—profile plots, vector plots, and

contour plots.

We explain the four fundamental kinematic properties of fluid motion and

deformation—rate of translation, rate of rotation, linear strain rate, and shear strain rate.

The concepts of vorticity, rotationality, and irrotationality in fluid flows are then
discussed.

Finally, we discuss the Reynolds transport theorem (RTT), emphasizing its role in
transforming the equations of motion from those following a system to those pertaining to fluid
flow into and out of a control volume. The analogy between material derivative for infinitesimal
fluid elements and RTT for finite control volumes is explained.

Pressure field is a scalar field variable; for general unsteady three-dimensional fluid flow
in Cartesian coordinates, it can be expressed as

𝑃 = 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)

Velocity field is a vector field variable in similar fashion, it can be represented as

⃗ = 𝑉
𝑉 ⃗ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)
(ref. ‘Fluid Mechanics’ by & Cimbala)
40- Acceleration Field
Acceleration field is a vector field variable and can be represented as
𝑎 = 𝑎(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)

The equations of motion for fluid flow (such as Newton’s second law) are written for a fluid

particle, which we also call a material particle. When Newton’s second law applied to our fluid

particle, it will give us

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑝 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑝

Here 𝑝 stands for particle.

⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑝
𝑑𝑉 𝑑
Now 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑝 = = 𝑑𝑡 𝑉(𝑥𝑝 (𝑡), 𝑦𝑝 (𝑡), 𝑧𝑝 (𝑡), 𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

By using chain rule, we will get

⃗
𝜕𝑉 ⃗ 𝑑𝑥𝑝
𝜕𝑉 ⃗ 𝑑𝑦𝑝
𝜕𝑉 ⃗ 𝑑𝑧𝑝
𝜕𝑉
𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑝 = + 𝜕𝑥 + 𝜕𝑦 + 𝜕𝑧 (1)
𝜕𝑡 𝑝 𝑑𝑡 𝑝 𝑑𝑡 𝑝 𝑑𝑡

Note: If 𝑉⃗ = (𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤); then

𝑑𝑥𝑝 𝑑𝑦𝑝 𝑑𝑧𝑝
𝑢= ,𝑣 = ,𝑤 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

where 𝑢, 𝑣 and 𝑤 are 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 components of velocity.

Equation (1) is now can be written as

⃗
𝜕𝑉 ⃗
𝜕𝑉 ⃗
𝜕𝑉 ⃗
𝜕𝑉
𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑝 = + 𝑢 𝜕𝑥 + 𝑣 𝜕𝑦 + 𝑤 𝜕𝑧 (2)
𝜕𝑡 𝑝 𝑝 𝑝

(ref. ‘Fluid Mechanics’ by & Cimbala)

41- Acceleration Field and Material Derivative
As we know that from the previous lecture
⃗
𝜕𝑉 ⃗
𝜕𝑉 ⃗
𝜕𝑉 ⃗
𝜕𝑉 ⃗
𝜕𝑉 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 ⃗
𝜕𝑉
𝑎= +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 = + (𝑢 +𝑣 + 𝑤 )𝑉⃗ = ⃗ . ⃗∇)𝑉
+ (𝑉 ⃗
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
⃗ = 𝑢𝑖 + 𝑣𝑗 + 𝑤𝑘 = (𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤),
Where 𝑉
⃗ = 𝜕 𝑖 + 𝜕 𝑗 + 𝜕 𝑘 is the gradient or del operator, and 𝑉
∇ ⃗ = 𝑢 𝜕 +𝑣 𝜕 +𝑤 𝜕.
⃗ .∇
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Hence, we have

⃗
𝜕𝑉
𝑎= + ⃗ .∇
⏟ (𝑉 ⃗ )𝑉
⃗
⏟ 𝜕𝑡
Local Acceleration Advective Acceleration

Important Concept:
 The local acceleration and is nonzero only for unsteady flows.
 The advective acceleration (sometimes the convective acceleration); this term can be
nonzero even for steady flows. It accounts for the effect of the fluid particle moving
(advecting or convecting) to a new location in the flow, where the velocity field is
different.

Material Derivative:
The total derivative operator is given a special name, the material derivative; it is assigned
a special notation, D/Dt, in order to emphasize that it is formed by following a fluid particle as
it moves through the flow field. Other names for the material derivative include total,
particle, Lagrangian, Eulerian, and substantial derivative. Its mathematical form is

𝐷 𝜕
= ⃗ .∇
+ (𝑉 ⃗)
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡
Hence the acceleration field can be written as

⃗
𝐷𝑉 ⃗
𝜕𝑉
𝑎= = ⃗ .∇
+ (𝑉 ⃗ )𝑉
⃗
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡
(ref. ‘Fluid Mechanics’ by & Cimbala)