Globalisation of Tourism: Drivers and Outcomes

Globalisation of Tourism: Drivers and Outcomes
• Professor Larry Dwyer

• School of Marketing, Australian School of Business
• University of New South Wales, Australia
• President, International Academy for the Study of Tourism

• President, International Association for Tourism Economics
1 faculty of science
What is Globalisation?
 The growing interdependence between national economies is
reflected in a trend towards global markets, global production,
global competition and global communication.
 Globalisation involves the evolving interconnectedness of the
world, reflected in the expanded flows of information, technology,
capital, goods, services and people.
 Globalization includes, and goes beyond, simple
internationalization of markets.
 a process by which national and regional economies, societies,
and cultures have become integrated through the global network
of trade, communication, immigration and transportation
Proponents of Globalisation claim positive effects - - - -
• promotes global economic growth,
• creates jobs,
• makes companies more competitive,
• expands consumer choice
• lowers product prices.
• the basis for disseminating technical knowledge and education
• improves global communication and transport,
• creates new markets for firms and countries,
• generates innovation and enhanced product quality,
• fosters democratic ideals and cultural exchange and international
understanding
Critics of Globalisation claim negative effects - - - -
 generates income inequalities,
 destroys local industries,
 creates greater dependency of developing economies on developed ones,
with adverse effects on small business
 Local level negative effects include
 increased prices of consumer goods and services,
 increased price of land and housing beyond local affordability,
 increased demands on public services and facilities.
 Some critics advance stronger claims that the effects of globalisation,
through the operation of TNCs, include
 displacement of indigenous peoples from lands,
 human rights abuses,
 unfair labour and wages,
 commodification of cultures,
 environmental degradation
So - - - who is right?
• Generalisations are hazardous
• The effects of globalisation differ case by case and by context.
• This is particularly true for the two- way link between the tourism industry
and globalisation.
5 Drivers of Globalisation
• Economic
• Technological
• Demographic
• Social
• Political
Economic Drivers
 Globalisation drives the integration of national economic
systems, including
• greater trade in goods and services,
• the creation of trading blocks, with the ability to move goods and
services freely across borders,
• substantial, and increasing, volumes of world trade.
 The centre of gravity of the world economy is shifting from west
to east and north to south.
 Rapid income growth within emerging economies is creating
new markets and new sources of competition. Newly emerging
economies, particularly China and India, are driving this growth
in trade.
Economic Drivers
• Easier access to foreign capital and increased FDI provides the
foundation for import substitution and export promotion to
generate competitive markets.
• Globalisation induced economic growth is a source of tax
revenue for development financing. TNCs can help developing
countries to improve their balance of payments with critical
financial infrastructure for economic and social development
• more integrated and interrelated world labour market.
 Does globalisation reduce global economic inequalities?
 While jobs are created in developing countries, globalisation is
claimed to cause unemployment in industrialized countries as
businesses outsource work to developing countries where the
cost of labour is low.
Technology Drivers
• The globalizing economy and technological change inevitably
require a more highly skilled labour force.
• Developments in information and communications technology
(ICT) and transportation have accelerated the pace of
globalisation, lowering operating costs and making it more
economically feasible for a firm to locate in different countries.
• technology makes it possible to produce customised services on
a large scale at cost competitive prices (mass customisation).
• Technological spillovers are particularly important for developing
countries providing opportunities for them to narrow the
productivity gap with the developed economies.
Technology Drivers
• The Internet and related social media has been a vital
development across all industries as consumers use it
to gather information on destination, products and
services.
• Rise of social media. Internet services such as
Facebook, Twitter, YouTube and Skype, e cross-
cultural communication.
• Technological advances in the transport sector,
particularly aviation, enable the continued rise in
mobility as people are able to move greater distances,
more comfortably and in faster time.
Demographic Drivers
• Major demographic shifts have profound effects on most social institutions.
• important drivers involve the related areas of population growth and age
structure change, driven by differential fertility rates and improved health care
• A high standard of public health in developed countries has contributed to
increased longevity. With increasing longevity, the growing world population is
ageing, especially in rapidly expanding urban areas
• Population is ageing in developed countries but getting younger in developing
countries.
• Population growth in the context of globalisation has generated a worldwide
trend toward urbanisation. By 2020, more than 60% of global population will
live in cities The number of very large cities, megalopolises of more than 10
million people, will increase to about 30 by 2020
Social Drivers
• Parallel to changes in demography are changes in people’s
values and needs, aspirations and expectations.
• As incomes rise in most countries in the world, so people’s
values, aspirations, motivations and behaviour do too.
 Worldwide, people possess:
• an increased sense of deservingness with emphasis on quality.
• Individualism
• Money rich time poor
• Experimental
• Hedonistic
• Feeling of deservingness
•13Social and environmental consciousness - - - faculty of science
Social Drivers
 Globalisation has produced a generation that is more
international in its outlook than any before.
This is demonstrated in membership of international
organisations, studying abroad, taking part in human rights
campaigns and so on.
 the migration and movement of people – either from rural to
urban environments within countries or migration related
between countries is a prominent feature of the globalization
process.
 provides better opportunities for people all round the world to
gain access to jobs.
Political Drivers
• increasing liberalization of trade and capital markets.
• International bodies such as the World Trade Organisation
(WTO) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) have
facilitated globalisation by respectively reducing trade barriers
(such as tariffs and subsidies) and the deregulation of world
financial markets.
• The Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD) and the World Bank support continued liberalisation of
trade through their lending and debt relief policies.
Political Drivers
• ongoing political pressure for higher living standards in

developing societies with a growing global middle class creating
a cycle of rising aspirations.
• A rapid expansion of the private sector in many emerging market
economies,spurs economic growth by generating competitive
pressures to use resources more efficiently
• development of generic consumer protection frameworks in
many countries providing certainty to all businesses and
consumers as to their rights, expectations, responsibilities and
obligations across all industries
These Drivers Affect Tourism Development
• The above highlights only some of the relevant drivers of
globalisation
• Each of the drivers has tourism relevance and no single driver or
trend will dominate.
• Each influences the others and will have varying impacts in
tourism destination different regions, countries, industry sectors
and tourist behaviour.
• The drivers are not necessarily mutually reinforcing; in some
cases they will work at cross-purposes.
• Taken together they set the context in which the global tourism
industry will develop in a context of continued globalisation.
• The trend towards increased globalisation will boost tourism, as
people are increasingly ‘international’ and ‘cosmopolitan’ in their
17outlook. faculty of science
Effects of Globalisation on Tourism Supply and Demand
• Economic Growth
 income inequality,
 economic dependency
 consolidation
 tourism expenditure leakages
 destruction of local industry,
Economic Growth
• Globalisation is considered to increase the economic prosperity of countries,
as rising trade and investment flows generate additional world GDP.
• In particular, strong income growth in developing economies such as BRIC
(Brazil, Russia, India, China) is expected to drive the increase in international
tourism worldwide as the ‘new wealthy’ seek new experiences.
• The UNWTO projects tourism to grow at 4.1% annually at least to 2020,
fuelled primarily by economic growth internationally.
• By 2030, it is forecast that destinations in today’s emerging economies will
account for 57 percent of international tourist arrivals compared to 47 percent
in 2011
• As rising income is the most powerful generator of tourism flows to the extent
that globalisation generates a dynamic world economy, it also creates the
economic basis for continued growth in domestic and international tourism
worldwide.
• The circle may be virtuous.
The other side - - -
• Critics have argued that globalisation has effects that greatly
reduce the economic impacts of tourism growth.
 income inequality,
 economic dependency
 consolidation
 tourism expenditure leakages
 destruction of local industry
Income inequality
• A particular advantage claimed for globalization is that it fosters
the generation of employment, increasing the standard of living
of people worldwide, and also alleviating poverty.
• Over time, as nations become wealthier and more efficient, the
benefits of trade will ‘trickle down’, reducing poverty levels.
• Even so, a causal relationship between inbound tourism and
economic growth may not necessarily lead to higher living
standards in developing countries, as these are also dependent
on the distribution of income and the quality of services such as
health care and education.
• Some studies suggest caution when generalizing the effects of
tourism growth on poverty within a country.
Dependency
 Most developing economies are highly vulnerable to any
economic disruptions that occur in the developed countries that
purchase their products.
 Two types of risks from overspecialisation relate to tourism.
 a dependency on tourism in general as an export market. The
global financial crisis has demonstrated the risks involved in
tourism dependency arising from sudden unfavourable changes
in demand from world markets
 too much reliance on tourism from particular origin markets or
too much reliance on a particular tourism product (e.g. hunting,
spa tourism, gambling).
 Given the discretionary nature of tourism expenditure, the
industry is extremely sensitive to crises of every type (economic,
22environmental, political). faculty of science
Dependency
• Both of the above types of risk are compounded by the reality

that TNCs are increasingly 'footloose', with ability to move and
change at very short notice creating uncertainty for the host
destination.
• TNC’s can switch their investments between territories in search

of the most favourable regulatory regimes with adverse
consequences for the local tourism industry.
Dependency
 In many developing countries, local economic activities and
resources are used less for the benefit and development of
communities and increasingly for export and the enjoyment of
others (i.e., consumers from other areas of the world). This
occurs in tourism when the domestic market is neglected.
 To avoid overdependence on the international tourism market
and related problems, countries can explore tapping the
potential of domestic tourism
 domestic tourism can effectively absorb the excessive supply
resulting from any slumps and seasonality of inbound tourism.
 This also helps redistribute the national income, thus reducing
interregional gaps in the level of economic development and
contributing to social equality.
Consolidation
• For many tourism firms, survival in the global marketplace
requires merging with or taking over companies that deliver
different components of the whole product.
• The growth of TNCs, and the rise in the significance of global
brands, has been central to the emergence of globalisation in the
tourism industry.
• The high concentration in some tourism sectors creates market
power and the potential for abuse by large international firms as
evidenced by exclusionary agreements, price fixing, market
sharing among dominant operators or boycott and refusal to deal
with operators in developing countries.
• These anti-competitive agreements and conduct can impose
substantial costs particularly on developing economies
25
eliminating many of the benefits of globalisation faculty of science
Leakages
• Expenditure patterns of international tourists has a higher import
content than the expenditure of domestic tourists.
• The resulting higher leakages imply a loss of foreign exchange
and a loss of economic benefits outside of the community back
to foreign owners.
• The weaker industrial bases of developing countries implies that
most products demanded by tourists cannot be manufactured
domestically.
• Weak links between tourism and other sectors in a destination
implies a weak ‘multiplier effect’ from tourism expansion
• Leakages also include export of profits by TNCs’ to foreign
locations by way of repatriation of profits to their 'home country',
De-industrialisation
 Globalisation can also erode an economy's manufacturing base.
 Local businesses, particularly in developing countries, face
much greater competition due to globalisation.
This can put local tourism SMEs at a disadvantage as they do
not have resources to compete at global scale.
 Local stakeholders may also be pushed out or sell out
 local prices for commodities and services rise, as do taxes.
The crowding out effects of export oriented tourism growth,
resulting in the decline of local (non- tourism) industries, are well
recognised.
Employment Opportunities: Positive
• Globalization can be a catalyst to the creation of jobs that require
higher skill sets.
• Globalisation generates greater labour mobility as the internet
provides greater opportunities to gain jobs internationally.
• The implications of this for tourism employment include an
increased demand for people with language skills, and with the
skills to work in different cultural environments.
• Tourism can also be a good employer of women and
disadvantaged groups and can upgrade their economic status.
• The jobs created by tourism can act as a very important
motivation to reduce emigration from rural areas. Local people
can improve their earnings prospects through tourism-related
professional training.
Employment Opportunities: negative
• competition from other sectors is causing a diminishing labour
pool of tourism staff of the right quality.
• the jobs created may be low-skilled with the TNC employing
expatriate workers for the more senior and skilled roles.
• TNCs can operate as local monopsonies of labour, and push
wages lower than the free market equilibrium.
• Local employment can be low level or unskilled, seasonal, low
wage, part time with little opportunity for advancement and
development of business and organizational skills.
• the tourism-related informal sector may contract as the tourism-
related formal sector expands
Spread of Technical Knowledge
• Access to information technology provides awareness of other

countries and their tourism offers.
• The tourism industry globally uses social media platforms such
as Facebook, Twitter, YouTube and travel blogs such as
TripAdviser, much more intensively, both on the demand and
supply side
• These new technologies have facilitated greater information
flows between travellers.
• interactive access to product offering via the Internet gives
tourists unprecedented control over how they spend their time
and money
• Travel and tourism companies and organisations increasingly integrate ICT

into their sales and marketing activities.
• The Internet allows marketing activity to be undertaken on a more level
playing field whereby small businesses can connect directly to consumers
and compete for market share on an even footing with larger firms
• New technologies globally also compete with tourism by delivering new forms
of entertainment in or near the consumer’s home.
• The new technologies with sophisticated database management systems
have transformed travel and tourism into a more flexible, customised,
individual-oriented activity responding to individual preferences
• Technology changes thus enable an increasing proportion of tourism
organizations to achieve the dual goals of reducing operating costs and
increase their ability to add value for their customers.
• In the transportation sector, new technology is
improving the speed and reducing the real cost of
travel.
• However, developing countries do not have a proper
infrastructure in place to leverage technological
benefits (TTCI)
• Is there ‘too much’ technology?. A consideration for the
tourism sector will be whether it can deliver authentic
experiences that aren’t crowded by technology.
New Markets
 two main causes of the development of new markets

in tourism, both of which are associated with
globalisation.
 demographic variables
 new consumer values.
Demographics: Population Change
• Population growth generates substantial expansion in overseas travel.
• Mass tourism is one of the visible manifestations of globalization.
• In 2000 the rate of international journeys was 11.5 per 100 people. At this rate
population increase alone would see a 20% rise in international travel.
However increases in wealth, particularly in developing countries, are
expected to see the rate of journeys grow to 20 per 100.
• Population growth is much higher in developing countries.
• The changing distribution of the population implies the importance of Asian
tourists to all markets.
• emerging economies expected to experience faster growth in tourist arrivals
• By 2030, it is forecast that destinations in today’s emerging economies will
account for 57 percent of international tourist arrivals compared to 47 percent
in 2011.
Demographics: Urbanisation
• The world is experiencing a shift from rural to urban
communities.
• This trend is a positive development for tourism, since urban
dwellers have a greater propensity to travel than those living in
rural areas.
• The growing urban congestion in both the industrialised and
developing economies leads to the increasingly felt need to
engage in discretionary tourism to escape and/or to indulge.
• As the world’s population grows and becomes increasingly
urbanised, tourists will be drawn to nature-based experiences.
Migration
• Migration levels worldwide have increased substantially
due to globalisation.
• Migration and tourism are clearly interlinked.
• Both Migration- Led Tourism (MLT) and Tourism- Led
Migration (TLM) make important economic and social
contributions to countries ranging from cultural
exchange to providing labour for tourism related
industries.
Age Re-structuring
• Increased life expectancy means larger numbers of older tourists from
existing markets in developed countries.
• Increased longevity increases the period over which people are active
travellers and tourists.
• Older persons are attractive as tourists because they have the financial
means, and time to devote to travel experiences.
• Tourism industry will increasingly have to take account of the needs and
preferences of older travellers by way of product design and marketing.
• At the same time, tourists from developing countries will be younger with very
distinctive needs from the older tourists from more traditional source markets.
Concurrent to income growth in the developing world youth travel is
experiencing rapid growth.
• The challenge for tourism industry is to address both the needs of younger
less experienced tourists in developing markets and the needs of experienced
tourists in developed markets.
Changing Social Structures
• Changing social structures associated with globalisation affect
tourism flows.
• Household types are diversifying away from the traditional
‘nuclear’ family in developed economies.Family structures are
shifting from more ‘horizontal’ with fewer generations to more
‘vertical’ structures with more generations included
• tourism will need to adapt itself to provide a more varied offer.
• Marketing and communications will have to address new
needs and wants that result from these emerging family and
household structures, with staff trained accordingly.
• Meanwhile, the growth of the singles market suggests strong
opportunities for educational and ‘interest-based’ tourism.
Work Patterns and Gender
Work patterns are changing which is also associated with
globalisation.
 Changing work patterns will allow for more flexibility of travel
plans.
The distinction between work and leisure will continue to blur
 Society is also becoming more feminised, with the
traditional distinction between the roles of men and women
becoming more blurred.
 Women have increasing influence on all the key
consumption decisions, including tourism opportunities and
destination choice.
In Sum: Importance of Demographic Changes
• Demographics will have a dramatic impact upon tourism in the
coming decades.
• It will impact upon the types of tourists that will travel, where they
originate from, where they travel to, the types of accommodation
they require, length of stay, and the activities they engage in
while away.
• The changes clearly have implications for business management,

marketing and new product development in tourism
New Consumer Values: Money-rich, time-poor:
• In developed countries, the growth of ‘money rich-time poor’
people implies a high demand for short time holidays.
• The greater pressure on ‘time’ and rising ‘stress’ levels leads to
growing emphasis on the means of ‘escape’ through holidays.
• Greater flexibility in working hours can provide benefits to
employees in terms of greater freedom to choose when to go on
holiday.
• This balancing between time and money is a critical issue for the
tourism industry to offer the right balance of activities and
relaxation to maximise the ‘benefit’ of the experience.
•
New Consumer Values: Individualism:
• People increasingly tailor holidays to meet their particular
requirements.
• As travellers become more experienced, they want
customised services, rejecting the impersonal, non-interactive
system of ‘mass tourism’.
• Tourists seek the unusual and the authentic experience rather
than the shared, off-the-shelf holiday package
• The experiences sought are those ‘authentic’ to the
destination and its people, personalised and often involve
social interaction and emotional connection.
New Consumer Values: Participation
• As incomes grow, people shift their discretionary expenditure
towards experiences as opposed to products.
• One result of the experience economy and tourism has been a
fragmentation of the tourist market into subsets of unique
experiences.
• With tourists desirous of involvement as participators not
spectators, seeking a variety of optional experiences,
• At the same time, tourists are demanding assurances of safe
products and services prior to purchase.
New Consumer Values: Self-improvement
• individuals are becoming more interested in self-improvement
as part of the tourism experience, emphasising health, well-
being, education, skill development and cultural appreciation.
• people are increasingly concerned about their health and well-
being. Greater value is being placed on de-stressing and
selfmedicating
• People are increasingly interested in discovering, experiencing,
participating in, learning about and more intimately being
included in the everyday life of the destinations they visit.
• As more material needs are satisfied tourists seek newer,
richer, deeper, experiences. Tourists, have an increased social
and environmental consciousness, seeking ‘authentic’ tourism
experiences.
Seeking Quality
• Standards in hospitality management and hotel sector are now
judged by global comparisons, even at the more localised level.
• The tourist marketing battle has shifted from competitive pricing
towards service improvement.
• TNCs that have been able to establish and sustain a consistent
brand image and control quality typically outperform competitors
unable to do so.
• As domestic businesses have to combat foreign competition,
they are compelled to raise their standards and customer
satisfaction levels in order to survive in the market.
In Sum: New Consumer Values
• The new consumer values have important implications for tourism on both
the demand and supply side.
• Rising affluence, greater internationalism, an appetite for risk taking, more
sophisticated marketing, the feeling of greater time pressures, and
improved access to technology all contribute to a fragmentation of tastes
in both developed and emerging markets.
• Firms must adopt individual strategies for individual markets and
customers, in order to become increasingly competitive in the market
place.
• This will require more detailed analyses of demographic trends and value
shifts, how these are impacting on tourism demand
• Those tourism organisations that ignore this massive demographic and
values shifts and their global impact are likely to experience strategic drift
and cease operations.
International Agreements
• Globalization results in easier access across borders, which for the tourism
industry implies more foreign tourists as well as increased global competition
from international tourist destinations.
• The continued deregulation and liberalisation of air transport and ‘open skies’
policy supports the growth of trade and tourism.
• However, it has been argued that international institutions aid and abet some
negative effects of globalisation
• Under GATS, protection to the local tourism industry would be construed as
unfair practice and would thus have to be eliminated.
• Regulations such as those found in the TRIMS agreement which restrict a
country's rights to require companies to purchase local materials, the "most
favoured nations" provisions which make it illegal for countries to reward
companies who hire locals or have good environmental practices, and the
liberalization of trade in services of GATS which would allow foreign
companies to merge or take over local companies.
International Agreements
• Tourism is now being pursued as a serious development strategy for the less
developed world. Under IMF-World Bank prescriptions, tourism is classified
as an export strategy.
• The International Monetary Fund (IMF) has included tourism as part of its
Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs).
• The SAPs, which are preconditions for the approval of financial assistance
require the indebted country to: be integrated into the global economy;
deregulate and liberalise its economy; shift from an agriculture-based to a
manufacturing and service industry-based economy; and liberalise its
financial sector.
• All such initiatives reinforce the importance of globalisation to tourism
industry development.
Environmental Effects
• On one view, globalisation has enhanced our understanding of the importance

of environmental protection benefitting all tourism stakeholders. Tourism can
foster conservation and preservation of natural resources, encouraging
community revitalisation and beautification, raising revenues to help maintain
quality of natural and heritage attractions
• The rise of the socially conscious and environmentally conscious consumer
leads to new patterns of tourist behaviour, as exemplified by the development
of alternative tourism, in opposition to mass tourism
• Many global environmental problems involving cross-boundary pollution, e.g.
over-fishing in the oceans, climate change, are being solved by discussions
and conventions.
• Globalization enhances the ability of countries to work together to overcome
natural disasters and global challenges, such as global warming and whaling.
• Another phenomenon that the globalization of ideas brings about is improving
environmental awareness and the popularization of the concept of sustainable
development
Environmental Effects
• As a counterargument, all countries face intensified
environmental problems as a result of population growth,
economic development and rapid urbanisation.
• Trade growth has also accelerated the depletion of non-
renewable resources, such as oil. Increased consumption leads
to an increase in the production of goods, which in turn puts
stress on the environment via its carbon footprint.
• Tourism transport, especially aviation, is a high emitter of
greenhouse gases, and contributor to global warming. Human,
animal and plant diseases spread more quickly through increased
movement of goods and people around the globe.
• The main environmental trends such as climate change,
depletion of natural resources and loss of biodiversity, are all
associated with globalisation. faculty of science
50
Social Effects: Positive
• The globalisation of social networks, whether through multinational
companies, higher education, or international civil society, can be expected to
drive further growth of tourism and travel.
• Inter alia, tourism can lead to removal of social or national prejudices,
promote mutual understanding between hosts and guests, encourage civic
involvement and local pride in a destination, improve the quality of life of
locals including the vitality of local communities, and increases availability of
recreation facilities and opportunities.
• Globalisation forges cross-cultural contacts, helping to promote cultural
understanding and tolerance, as well as the spread of democratic ideals.
• Globalization has helped to create internationally sanctioned agreements
which attempt to ensure that people are not discriminated against on the
basis of country, caste, creed or sex.
Social Effects: Negative
• On a contrary view, since the cultures of those countries that have more
economic power are likely to be more dominant than others, it is no surprise
that global tourism threatens indigenous knowledge, social structures and
relationships.
 In many developing countries, tourism's effects on indigenous peoples have
been profound:
• widescale eviction from their lands,
• economic dislocation,
• breakdown of traditional values
• degradation of cultural sites when historic sites and buildings demolished to
make way for tourist facilities.
• commodification of culture
 Clearly the reality differs case by case.
Reason for optimism?
• On a brighter note, populations are responding to the globalization of
economies, markets, systems and cultures by exploring their own identities
• This tension between ‘modernity’ and ‘identity’ is leading to the increasing
questioning by local communities of the form and scale of tourism
development and type of destination marketing in those societies.
• Increased community involvement in tourism planning and development
results in a growing dispersion of tourism away from mass tourism dominated
by TNCs, into diverse niche markets.
• From this perspective, globalisation appears to pull in two ways, both
towards the creation of TNCs by the extension of operations through take-
overs, the formation of strategic alliances or franchising agreements, and, in
terms of consumption, towards more localised or regional ‘branding’ and
niche marketing.
In Sum - - -- -
• We cannot generalise too broadly on globalisation’s impacts on tourism and
the subsequent effects on economies, communities and natural
environments.
• Globalisation has positive and negative effects.
• More case studies are required to identify the effects in particular locations.
• As the drivers of globalisation show no signs of a slowdown, the challenges
facing tourism are formidable.
• Since the same forces that drove mass tourism are sewing the seeds of its
demise, it is very likely that a complete change of paradigm, is required if
tourism globally is to develop in a sustainable way
• Some critics argue that the growing incidence of crises, environmental,
political and economic, encourages a counter trend to the globalisation
process, with possible significant implications for the future of the global travel
system.
In Sum - - - -
• All elements of the tourism industry need to be sensitive to the needs of the
‘new tourists’. Communities must ask: What do tourists want? What types of
experiences do they value? How can we meet those needs? Do we want to?.
• Perhaps even more important than catering for visitor needs, destination
residents should be developing a vision for the type of community they wish
to live in, and the role that tourism might play (if at all) in achieving that vision.
• the tourism industry can do more to critically engage with the main
international institutions and governments, providing a link from stakeholders
who are marginalised and exploited by the processes of globalisation.
• The international tourism industry, through organisations such as the
UNWTO, can play an important advocacy role, helping to build the capacity of
developing countries to participate more fully and negotiate more effectively in
the discussion about trade rules, subsidies, liberalisation and corporate
responsibility and regulation.
Thank You
Merci

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Globalisation of Tourism: Drivers and Outcomes

• Professor Larry Dwyer

• President, International Academy for the Study of Tourism

• ongoing political pressure for higher living standards in

• Both of the above types of risk are compounded by the reality

• TNC’s can switch their investments between territories in search

• Access to information technology provides awareness of other

• Travel and tourism companies and organisations increasingly integrate ICT

 two main causes of the development of new markets

• The changes clearly have implications for business management,

• On one view, globalisation has enhanced our understanding of the importance

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