General effectiveness of groundwater treatment

 Mechanisms of pollutant removal (natural)

 Mechanical straining: suspended solids, microorganisms, etc…
 Oxidation of organic matter
 Sorption, etc…
 Biological degradation of pollutants may be impaired because of
depleted DO; microbial death, due to lack of nutrients.
 Treatment processes for potable supply: depend on
1. Nature of the aquifer: including permeability,------
 In the case of clean fine sand aquifer, for example only disinfection
as a safety barrier may be desirable.

1
Exposure level to pollution: pollution status of the aquifer
 An aquifer containing organic matter:
 Depleted dissolved oxygen level,
 Elevated level of CO 2 (soil bacteria respiration )cause the water
to:
 Be corrosive unless calcium carbonate in one form or another
is present.
 Dissolve iron, manganese and heavy metals (e.g. arsenic) from
the underground strata.
 Treatment for the above effects = Aeration

2
 General effectiveness of surface water treatment
 Origins: Groundwater outflows and surface runoff.
Pollutants derived from these origins:
 Groundwater outflow will impart mainly dissolved solids /
Minerals
 Surface runoff: pathogenic organisms, suspended solids,
heavy metals, organic and inorganic pollutants.
Natural or self purification processes of flowing surface water
sources
 Microbial oxidation of organic matter
 Dilution

3
 Sedimentation
 Disinfection: Sunlight (ultraviolet ray)

4
 CHAPTER TWO : WATER TREATMENT

2.1 Conventional large scale surface water treatment

 Steps :
 Preliminary treatment,
 Aeration,
 Coagulation-flocculation
 Plain Sedimentation
 Filtration

5
  Disinfection
 Supplementary water treatment: F-, Fe & Mn, Nutrients

2.1.1 Preliminary water treatment processes

 Remove debris, rages, coarse floating matter as well as oil and
grease
 Purpose: To protect the subsequent unit treatment operations
from mechanical damage and obstructed flow.
 Improve efficiency of the unit treatment processes.
 Treatment Processes: includes Screening, Straining and Grit
removal.
6
 Screening and Straining
 Remove larger particles, like debris and rags
Screening
 Screens may vary from coarse to fine
 Coarse screens with openings of about 75 mm to remove
larger objects.
 Fine screens: mesh form with openings of 5 - 20 mm
 Arranged (Inclined) as a continuous belt, a disc or a drum
through which the raw water passes.
 The screening mesh is usually slowly rotated
Removal of screenings (manual or mechanical) before an excessive head loss
occur

7
Fig 2.1 Belt and drum screens

8
Cleaning of screens
 On the basis of elapsed time or initiated by the build up of
head loss across the screen.
 Small scale: intermittent hand cleaning
 Large scale: automatic mechanical cleaning
Micro-straining
 A development of the drum screen with a fine woven
stainless - steel mesh having aperture sizes of 20 - 60 µm
to provide removal of relatively small solids.

9
 Application:
 In water treatment for removal of algae and similar-size
particles from waters of otherwise good quality.
 As final tertiary stage to produce a high - quality sewage
effluent.
 Limitation: Rapid clogging due to small mesh apertures,
 Mesh continually washed clean by high- pressure water
sprays, while the drum is rotating (a peripheral speed of about
0.5 m/s) .
 Disposal of screened or strained matter: landfill or
incineration.
 Straining rates in normal usage are 750-2500m3/m2 d.

10
 Design of microsrainer based on clogging properties of the
suspension.
 Empirical, laboratory determination, known as the filterability
index.
 Determine the allowable straining rate to prevent excessive
clogging and possible physical damage to the mesh.
Grit Removal
 To remove sand and grit that can result in :
 Excessive wearing out of pumps and other equipment,
 Clogging of aeration devices, or
 Taking up capacity in tanks that is needed for treatment (like
sedimentation)

11
 Grit particles have relatively large size and high density.
 Removal mechanism is by settling
 The grit is removed at intervals, washed and then disposed of for
re-use in some way.
2.1.2 Aeration
 Is the treatment process whereby water is brought into intimate
contact with air.
Objective: to
i. Increase oxygen content of the water,
ii. Reduce carbon dioxide content of the water,

12
 …cont’d

iii. Remove hydrogen sulphide, methane and various volatile organic

compounds responsible for bad taste and odor.
iv. Remove dissolved minerals (iron and manganese)
 For drinking supplies, aeration of the raw water can be achieved
by:
1. Dispersing the raw water through the air in thin sheets or fine
droplets (waterfall aerators), or
2. By mixing the raw water with dispersed air (bubble aerators).
A. Waterfall aerators
 There is an appreciable release of gasses from the water, which is
negligible in bubble aerators.
13
 Reduction of carbon dioxide :
 Not always sufficient when treating very corrosive water.
 A chemical treatment such as lime dosing or filtration over
marble or burned dolomite would be required for this type of
water.
Types of waterfall aerators
A. Multiple tray aerator
 Very simple and inexpensive arrangement and it occupies little
space.
 4 to 8 trays (ferrocement or plastic ) with perforated bottoms
placed at intervals of 30-50 cm.

14
 Perforated pipe: trickles down the water evenly over the upper
tray part at a rate of about 0.02 m3/s/m2 of tray surface.
 The droplets are dispersed and re-collected at the successive
tray.

15
Fig 2.2 Multiple tray aerator 16
B. Cascade aerator
 Consists of a flight of 4-6 steps, each about 30 cm high.
 Capacity: about 0.01 m3/s / meter of width.
 Obstacles are often set at the edge of each step
 Produce turbulence and thus promote the aeration efficiency
 Compared with tray aerators:
 Require larger area/ space
 Lower head loss
 No maintenance is needed

17
Fig 2.3 : Cascade aerator

18
C. Multiple platform aerator
 Uses the same principles. Sheets of falling water area formed for full
exposure of the water to the air.

Fig 2.4 : Multiple platform aerator

19
D. Spray aerators
 Stationary nozzles connected to a distribution grid through which the
water is sprayed into the surrounding air at velocities of 5-7 m/s.

Fig 2.5: Spray aerators

20
B. Bubble aerators
 Have small air requirement: no more than 0.3-0.5 m3 of air per m3
of water.
 Can easily be obtained by a sucking in of air.
 Best demonstrated with the venturi aerator shown below

21
Fig 2.6 : Venturi aerators

22
 2.1.3. SEDIMENTATION

 Remove settleable suspended impurities, including reduced iron

and manganese, bacteria as well as organic colloids.
Plain sedimentation:
 Removal of impurities: Settling by gravity
Low velocity of the influent without or negligible turbulence.
 Turbulence or cross-circulation in the tank reduce the efficiency
of settling and can be controlled by:
Provision of separate inlet structure for the influent raw
water
Even distribution of the water over the full width and depth of
the tank .

23
 Similarly: an outlet structure is required to collect the clarified water
evenly.

Figure 2.7 : Sedimentation of particles

24
Figure 2.8 : Plan (2nd fig) and cross section (1st fig) of
sedimentation tank
25
 Regular Cleaning of Setting tanks: Draining or scraping.
Settling tank design

H
B
L

26
 S0 = H / T
T = V/Q
= BLH/ Q
Therefore, S0 = H ÷ BLH/ Q
S0 = Q/ BL
 Consequently, BL= Q/ S 0 ; Where
S0 = Setting velocity of the particle (m/h)
Q= Flow rate (m3/h)
B= Width of tank (m)
T = Detention time (hr)
H = Depth of the tank (m)
L = Length the tank (m)
27
H = Depth of the tank (m)
L = Length the tank (m)
 B to L ratio: 1:3 to1:8
The settling efficiency depends on the ratio between the influent
flow rate and the surface area of the tank.
It is not dependent on depth of the tank
The choice of So, called surface loading, determines the horizontal
surface area required.

28
 …cont’d
Table 2.1 : Settling time for particles of various diameters

Particle diameter Type of Particle Settling time through 1 m. of water

10mm Gravel 1 seconds
1mm Sand 10 seconds
0.1mm Fine Sand 2 minutes
10 micron Protozoa, Algae, Clay 2 hours
1 micron Bacteria, Algae 8 days
0.1 micron Viruses, Colloids 2 years
10 nm Viruses, Colloids 20 years
1 nm Viruses, Colloids 200 years

29
 …cont’d

 Remark:
 Assuming even distribution of all suspended particles in the water
over full depth of the tank (by way of an ideal inlet structure),
Particles having a setting velocity (S) higher than S 0 will be
completely removed. While, particles with lower settling velocity
will be removed for a proportional part S: S 0.

30
 …cont’d
How to increase the settling efficiency?
Decreased surface loading
 By installing multiple or extra bottoms (surface area ): With increased effective
surface area
The design of settling tank should properly be based on an
analysis of the setting velocities of the settleable particles in the
raw water.
Surface loading
 Plain Sedimentation: in the range from 0.1 to1 m/hour.
 Setting tanks receiving pretreated water (e.g. coagulation &
flocculation): between 1 and 3 m/hour
The effects of turbulence, short-circuiting and bottom scour
caused by inlet and outlet design should be considered.

31
Weirs and orifices should be arranged to reduce jetting at
the inlet, and upward flow at the outlet.
Windbreaks of about 2 m high can reduce wind disturbance.
The ratio between length and width of the settling tank
should be between 1:3 and 1:8.

32
 2.1.4. COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION
 Remove colloidal matter with mass density (specific
weight) lower than that of water.
 Properties of colloidal matter:
 Are stabilized by surface electrical charge:
 In the pH range of water and wastewater, possess
negative charge.
 Dominating electrostatic repulsive forces: no
agglomeration up on approaching each other.
 A water layer surrounding colloidal particles
(hydrophilic) may also cause the stabilization.

33
 Two opposite forces between two mutually approaching
colloidal particles:
Electrostatic repulsive forces ( Fα 1/S)
The Van der Waals attractive force (F 2α 1/S)
 Conditioning or destabilization of colloidal matter
 By intense and vigorous mixing with mostly an inorganic
electrolytes, called coagulants.
 Salts of mostly trivalent cations: Aluminium sulphate,
ferric sulphate, ferric chloride

34
Figure 2. 9: Basic reactions and processes that occur
during coagulation

35
 Colloidal structure of the emulsion is destroyed and a
suspension of finely divided particles evolve (which were
loose initially)
 Subsequent adherence of the particles each other to form
larger flocs.
 This process is called chemical coagulation- flocculation
 There are two types of coagulant:
1. Primary coagulants
2. Natural coagulants

36
1. Primary coagulants
 Aluminum and iron coagulants: used almost exclusively
in water treatment.
 Choice:
 Efficiency/ effectiveness: jar test (laboratory)
 Economy
1. Aluminum coagulant
 Alum: Al 2 (SO4)3.nH20) where n=14, 16, or 18, depends
on the form of alum supplied.

37
Forms of Alum:
 Liquid (solution)
 Solid: crystalline granules (2-5 cm size) or crystalline blocks .
 It is by far the most widely used coagulant.
 Relatively inexpensive if local production is possible.
2. Iron coagulants
 Four types of iron salts are used as coagulants:
1. Ferric chloride(FeCl3) ,
2. Ferric sulfate(Fe2(SO4)3.9H2O),
3. Ferrous sulfate (copperas), FeSO 4 and

38
4. Chlorinated copperas
 In general, the iron coagulants give similar results when their
doses are compared in terms of iron content.
Differences between iron coagulants and alum
1. Iron coagulants operate good at broader pH range.
 Formation of ferric hydroxide at lower pH values
 Coagulation is possible with;
 Ferric sulfate at pH values as low as 4.0
 Ferric chloride at pH values as low as 5.0.

39
 Ferric coagulants may be used to remove color at higher pH
values.
 In the removal of iron and manganese and during softening
of water.
2. The floc formed with ferric coagulants is heavier than alum floc
3. The ferric hydroxide floc does not redissolve at high pH values.

Fe2 (SO4)3 + 6H2O  2Fe(OH)3  + 3H2SO4

40
Coagulation with Alum
 Optimal floc formation occurs at water pH values between 6.0
and 8.0.
Al2 (SO4)3 + 6H2O  2Al (OH)3  + 3H2SO4
 If the alkalinity of water is insufficient to react with the alum,
an alkali agent , such as lime must be added.
 The following quantities serve as a useful guide (Source:
American Water Works Association, 1971):
1 mg/l of alum reacts with:
 0.50 mg/l of natural alkalinity, expressed as CaCO 3

41
  0.33 mg/l of 85% quick lime as CaO
 0.39 mg/l of 95% hydrated lime as Ca(OH) 2
 0.54 mg/l of soda ash as Na 2CO3
 The approximate amounts of the above (except the 1 st ) alkaline
agents will maintain the alkalinity of water treated with 1 mg/l of
alum.
 For example: the natural alkalinity of water treated with 1 mg/l of
alum will be reduced by 0.50 mg/l.
 addition of 0.39 mg/l of hydrated lime in water treated with 1
mg/l of alum will maintain its natural alkalinity the same.

42
 Mechanisms of coagulation
1. Adsorption destabilization or Neutralization destabilization
Interaction of cations of higher valence and their hydrolysis
products with negatively charged colloidal matter.
2. Sweep coagulation
Mutual coagulation with opposite charged colloidal particles, i.e.
Hydroxide precipitates of Al 3+ and Fe3+ , that constitute
additional ‘targets’ upon which the colloidal particles can
adhere.
E.g. Al2 (SO4)3 + 6H2O  2Al (OH)3  + 3H2SO4

43
 Determination of coagulant dose
 The optimal dose of coagulants to be added into a raw
water for good coagulation process.
 Will vary depending upon the nature or composition of
the raw water.
 Periodic determination of the optimal dose is important :
 Experimental Method of determination: Jar test

44
 Procedure for Jar test:
1. Prepare a series of raw water samples, with known volume
(typically 800 ml) as well as known color and turbidity levels,
in 1-litre beakers (or jars),
2. Add the coagulant at different concentrations (e.g.10,
20,30,40 and 50 mg/L ) into the water samples followed by
vigorous stirring (special multiple stirrer) for about one
minute,
3. Gently stir the dosed water samples for 10 minutes,
4. Allow the treated water samples to stand and settle for 30-
60 minute.

45
5. Measure the levels of color and turbidity in the water
samples dosed with different concentrations of the
coagulant.
Result interpretation:
Optimal coagulant dose is the lowest dose that result in
satisfactory reduction/removal of color and turbidity in
the water samples.
 What does satisfactory reduction/removal mean????

46
 JAR TEST

Fig 2.10: jar test for coagulant dose determination

47
Reduction of coagulant dosage by:
1. Pre treatment of the raw water for:
 Excessive turbidity: E.g. using plain sedimentation
 Low turbidity (< 50 NTU): E.g. using direct filtration
2. Application of coagulant aids, and
3. Optimum pH adjustment for the raw water to form
optimum floc
Coagulant aid
 Strengthen slow-settling fragile flocs that cause difficulties in
the coagulation processes.
 Make them easier to settle

48
 Examples of Coagulant aid:
 Organic polymers are the most widely used product.
 High-molecular weight organic compounds with electrical
charges (negative or positive), at low water temperatures.
Coagulation process comprises of:
1. Addition of coagulant (coagulant dosing)
2. Rapid Mixing
3. Flocculation (Formation and growth of Flocs)
4. Removal of Flocs.

49
Figure 2. 11: Floc formation process

50
 1. Addition of coagulant (coagulant dosing)
 The most common form : in the form of a solution.
 Example: Alum solution usually of 3-7% strength, that is, 30
to 70 kg alum per m 3 water.
 Application of alum with strength less than 1% results in
hydrolysis of the coagulant before it is dosed into the raw water
 Forms agglomerates with the chemical feed water
 Alum solutions should always be maintain at strength of more
than 1.5%.

51
 Various chemical feed arrangements can be used.
 Two tanks are required:
i. Tank for preparation of the solution
ii. Tank for operation (coagulation & flocculation)

52
Figure 2. 12: Coagulant dosing tanker
53
 2. Rapid mixing
 To ensure uniform and rapid dispersal of coagulants.
 To avoid local pockets of water with rapid pH drop.
 Mechanisms:
 Violent agitation of the raw water, and/or
 Injection of the coagulant in the most turbulent water
Zone.
 Hydrolysis of the coagulant and destabilization of colloids are
almost instantaneous (a few seconds) processes:
 It is desirable to locate the rapid mixer near to:

54
  The “chemical house” where solutions of chemicals
are prepared.
 The feeding pipes then will be of short length.

 The flocculators.

There are two basic groups of rapid mixing devices:

i. Hydraulic rapid mixing
ii. Mechanical rapid mixing

55
i. Hydraulic rapid mixing
 Can be of channels or chambers arrangement with
hydraulic structures :
Baffles producing turbulent flow conditions,
Overflow weirs, and hydraulic jumps.
 Rapid mixing may also be achieved by feeding the
chemicals at the suction side of pumps.
 Based on quality of the design, a hydraulic mixer can be
as effective as a mechanical mixing device

56
Figure 2. 13: Baffled channel for rapid mixing

57
Figure 2. 14: overflow weir
58
Figure 2.15: Hydraulic jump
59
ii. Mechanical rapid mixing
 Power supply for agitation of the water: By impellers,
propellers or turbines (rapid mixers, flash mixers, and turbo
mixers).
Require a reliable and continuous supply of power and
maintenance
Generally mechanical rapid mixers are less suitable for
small scale water treatment plants , compared to the
hydraulic mixers.

60
Figure 2. 16: Mechanical rapid mixer
61
 3. Flocculation (Formation and growth of Flocs)
 Gentle and continuous stirring process to facilitate formation of
flocs (aggregation of the coagulated particles).
 Readily removed by setting or filtration.
 Efficiency:
 Largely determined by the number of collisions between the
minute coagulated particles per unit of time.
 Can take up two forms/types:
i. Mechanical , and
ii. Hydraulic.

62
i. Mechanical flocculators:
Devices such as paddles, reels or rakes can be used to
stir the water
These devices can be fitted to a vertical or horizontal
shaft.
ii. Hydraulic flocculators
Flow of the water is influenced by small hydraulic
structures formed by the stirring action.
Typical example: Baffled channel flocculators
(horizontal or vertical ).

63
 Horizontal-flow baffled flocculation channels
Design parameters include:
 Water velocity : usually 0.10 to 0. 30 m/s
 Detention time: normally is 15-20 minutes
Application: well suited for very small treatment plants.
Efficiency: Dependent on the depth of water in the baffled
channel.

64
Figure 2. 17: horizontal – flow baffled chamber flocculator
65
(Plan)
 Vertical - flow baffled chamber flocculator
 Design parameters include:
 Water velocity : 0.1 to 0.2 m/s
 Detention time: 10-20 minutes.

66
Figure 2.18: vertical - flow baffled chamber flocculator
(cross-section) 67
 The main shortcomings of hydraulic flocculators are:
1. No adjustment is possible to changes of raw water
composition.
2. No adjustment is possible to the water production rate of
the treatment plant.
3. The head loss is often appreciable.
4. They may be difficult to clean.

 Advantages: have no motor power, electric cable

switchgear, etc. and general maintenance is easier

68
Natural coagulants
 Seeds of the Moringa oleifera tree have been revealed by
different studies as one of the most effective natural coagulants
in water treatment.
 Effective in removing suspended particles from water with
medium to high levels of turbidity.
 Mechanism: on going research!!!!
Coagulant effect: positively charged, water-soluble proteins, &
Antimicrobial agent: Direct growth inhibitors

69
Table -- : Comparison between alum and Moringa oleifera
seed extract as water coagulats

70
Table 2.2 : Differences between alum and Moringa oleifera seed extract water
coagulants.
Parameters Aluminium sulphate Moringa seed extract
Destabilization A13+ cationic Polyelectrolytes
Support of aggregation adsorption at A1(OH) 3 flocs none
Efficiency at low turbidity still satisfactory at 3 NTU failing below 30 NTU
Mineralogical nature of minor impact on optimal doses doses about 50% lower if
suspended matter montmorillonite clays are
present.
Pollution by organic matter minor impact on optimal doses great impact on doses and
additional organic load
Floc coarse due to aluminum very fine; result is slower
hydroxides setting; further decrease of
settling at lower temperature
Sludge volume great small
pH of treated water increase of acidity no change
Hardness increase of Ca2+due to no change 71
neutralization
 2.1.5. FILTRATION
 For potable water supply , filtration usually follow
sedimentation process with or without coagulation.
 Principe:
 Removal of impurities from raw water by passing it
through porous material or medium.
 Treatment mechanisms: physical and biochemical processes.
 Types of filters media: Two general types of filters :
1. Slow sand filter (SSF) and
2. Rapid sand filter (RSF)

72
 1. Slow sand filter (SSF)
 Is filtration of raw water through layer of ungraded fine sand
at a low rate (0.1 – 0.3 m/h).
Formation of biologically active layer of microorganisms
called the schmutzdecke on top of the sand bed.
 The treatment system is important for:
 Reduction of bacterial (total coliforms) count ,
 Reduction of E.coli count
 Break down of organic matter
 Retention of suspended impurities.

73
Fig

Figure 2. 19: Slow sand filter

74
 Impurity removal take place almost entirely in the upper 0.5
to 2 cm of the filter bed.
 The principal use of slow sand filtration is in the removal of
organic matter and pathogenic organisms from raw waters of
relatively low turbidity.
Practical to treat raw water with turbidity values below
50 NTU (higher turbidities can be tolerated for a few
days).
The best purification occurs when turbidity of the raw
water is below 10 NTU.
When higher turbidities are expected, slow sand filters
should be preceded by some type of pretreatment e.g.---.

75
 Designing of slow sand filters
 At least two units should be designed to allow for cleaning
periods.
The unit basically consists of the following structures :
1. Flow control
2. Drainage systems
3. Supernatant water layer and
4. Filter bed.

76
Figure 2.20: units of slow sand filter
77
 1. Flow control
 Importance:
i. To maintain the proper filtration rate through the filter bed
&
ii. To avoid submergence of the media under all conditions of
operation.
 Increases in abrupt filtration rate should be avoided.
 Types of flow control: Outlet and inlet controlled flow.
A. Outlet flow control: to kept the supernatant water level close
to the maximum desired level above the filter bed.

78
 Flow rate control: the outlet valve is gradually opened to
compensate for the increase in the head loss over the filter
media.
 Raw water storage capacity above the sand bed provides:
 Sedimentation of heavier particles,
 Time for biological activity, and
 Buffer capacity.
B. Inlet flow control:
 Increase in head loss is compensated by an increase in the
height of the supernatant water.

79
 Studies revealed that, inlet flow and outlet flow - controlled
SSF units running in parallel with filtration velocities from
0.13 m/h to 0.5 m/h have similar performance in terms of
effluent water quality, head loss in the filtering bed, and filter
run times.

2. Drainage systems
 Consists of a principal drain with lateral branches, usually
constructed from perforated pipes, brickwork or tiles and
covered with a layer of graded gravel and a layer of coarse
sand.

80
 Functions:
 Ensure uniform abstraction of the raw water over the
filter unit;
 Support the filter media and prevent it from being drained
off;
 Allow for backfilling of the filter and drive out possible air
pockets.
 The main drain should discharge the filtered water freely at
atmospheric pressure into the outlet box.
 A flow indicator is required at both inlet and outlet of the
units to:

81
  Facilitate operational procedures and
 Verify water balance, as an indication of possible water
losses in the main filtering boxes.
3. Supernatant water layer
 Provides the static head necessary for the passage of raw
water through the sand bed.
 In a clean bed the initial head loss is usually below 0.1m
and it gradually increases until the maximum level is
reached.
 In small systems units with outlet control, variations of
the supernatant depth have been reported in the range of
0.6 – 1.2 m.

82
 4. Filter bed
 Consists of a uniform mixture of fine sand particles.
 The most critical design feature of SSF is proper selection of
sand
 Characterized by diameter of the individual sand grains.
 Specification of sand size grading:
 The effective size diameter (d 10 ) = The size that 10% of
the sand particles are smaller ,
 The uniformity coefficient (UC) = d 60/ d10.
 UC : < 2 is preferred & < 4 is accepted.

83
 Investigations revealed that d 10 should be small enough
to:
 Produce safe water and
 Prevent penetration of clogging matter to such depth
that it cannot be removed by surface scraping.
 As there is reasonably consistent relationship between the size and
permeability of sand particles .

 It has been reported that (USA) a total coliform

reduction from 96% at d 10 of 0.6 mm to 99.4% at d 10 of
0.1 mm.

84
Grain size (d ) and pore size (do )
 Relationship: 15.5% of the grain size account for pore
size, i.e.
do = 0.155 * d
Fig. 2.21

85
 Moreover, the sand filter should be clean to:
 Prevent: high initial head losses and lower filter run,
 Improve the development of an active and effective microbial population in
the filter bed.

86
 Design guidelines
 Differences exist in the application of SSF design
guidelines worldwide, depending on:
 Drinking water quality standards,
 Raw water quality,
 The type and level of pre- treatment specified;
 The local conditions, like resources

87
Table 2.3 SSF design guidelines

Design criteria Recommendation

Design period ( years ) 8 – 12
Period of operation (hd-1) 24
Filtration rate (mh-1) 0.1 – 0.3
Sand bed:-
- initial height (m) 0.8
- minimum height (m) 0.3-0.5
- effective size (mm) 0.15 – 0.30
- uniformity coefficient: acceptable <4
- uniformity coefficient: preferred <2
Support bed. Height including drainage (m) 0.25
Supernatant water. Maximum height (m) 0.75
Freeboard (m) 0.1
Maximum surface area (m2) < 100 88
 Operation and maintenance procedures for SSF
 Operation : Continuous
Declining – rate filtration can be applied, but
intermittent operation should be avoided.
As oxygen depletion in the bed compromises biological activity.

 It has been reported that (in India) deterioration in

bacteriological quality of effluent when filters
recommence operation after 5 hours.

89
Cleaning of the filter media
 Clogging of the filter media as a result of the accumulation of
suspended impurities and biomass result in:
Increased head loss (occurs in the top layer),
Decreased hydraulic conductivity
 Cleaning :
 Classically, this is achieved by scraping the top 1-3 cm of the
filtering bed.
After several scrapings, when the filter bed reaches its
minimum depth (0.3-05 m), re-sanding is required.

90
 Methods of filter cleaning :
Manual cleaning (scraping) of the sand surface has been
the option for most small SSF units.
 In general, higher frequency of scraping is associated with:
 High concentration of organic matter and susspended
impurities in the raw water;
 Growth of algae in the supernatant water;
 Small media grains size; etc
 A secondary ripening period (up to 10 days ) may be
necessary after scraping to recover previous treatment
capacity of the SSF.

91
 The cleaning is best done in warm periods and by
keeping the water table within 10 cm of the sand
surface.
 Cause desiccation and death of spirotrichs and
peritrichs protozoa
 The scraped sand should be washed and stored for re-
sanding, i.e.
The sand in the filter bed should be placed at the top
while stored and washed sand at the bottom.
 In this way the sand on top of the filtering bed should provide seed
organisms to shorten the ripening period (See Figure 2.22).

92
Fig. 2.22: Re-sanding of slow sand filter

93
Water quality limitations of slow sand filtration
 Though, it has been recognized as a simple, reliable, efficient
and most effective water treatment process, SSF dose not
necessarily remove all harmful substances for drinking water
supplies.
 Table 6 depicts the typical treatment efficiencies of SSF
operating:
At filtration rates in the range of 0.04 and 0.20 mh -1,
Temperature above 50°C, and
Sand bed depths greater than 0.5 m.

94
Table 2.4 Treatment efficiencies of slow sand filters
Water quality parameter Performance or removal capacity
Enteric bacteria 90-99.9%
Enteric viruses 99-99.99%
Giardia cysts 99-99.99%
Cryptosporidium > 99.9%
Cercaria 100%
Turbidity < 1 NTU
Pesticides 0-100%
DOC 5-40%
True colour 25 – 40%
TOC; COD <15-25%
AOC 14-40%
Iron, manganese 30-90%

95
 In general, two factors can be implicated with the limitations
of SSF process, i.e.:
1. Quality of the raw water: level of water quality indicating
parameters that:
Exceed the treatment capacity, or
May result in short filter runs to comply with existing
standards: clogging before safe levels!!!
2. Other operating conditions including:
low temperatures,
low nutrient content
low dissolved oxygen content.

96
 How to Overcome the limitations of SSF
 Application of Multi – stage and integrated water
treatment concepts.

97
Advantages of slow sand filter include:
1. Low cost of construction
2. Simplicity of design , operation and maintenance.
3. Negligible imports of material and equipment as well as no
chemicals are required.
4. Power is not required if gravity head is available, and there
are no moving parts or requirements for compressed air or
high-pressure water.
5. Variation in raw water quality and temperature can be
accommodated provided that turbidity does not become
excessive; no harm due to overloading for short periods.

98
6. Water is saved-as important matter in many areas-
because large quantities of wash water is not required
(compared with RSF).
Disadvantages of slow sand filter include:
1. Large land requirement (about five times that required
for rapid filtration plants);
2. Higher construction costs where the methods are
largely mechanized and labor is expensive;
3. Higher costs for cleaning the filters where manual
labor is expensive;

99
4. Need to cover the filters in freezing climates.
5. The biological layer (i.e., Schmutzdecke) may be up-seted
by certain types of toxic industrial wastes or heavy load
of colloids; and
6. Excessive growth of algae interfere with the operation of
SSF, usually by choking the filter bed, which calls for
frequent cleaning.

100
 2. Rapid sand filtration (RSF)
 Has higher filtration rate (m/h): From 5 to 10 and consists of:
 Up to 1.2 m deep layer of coarse sand, 0.6 mm to 1.5 mm
diameter , overlaying gravel.
 Pores of the filter bed are relatively large:
 Impurities of the raw water penetrate deep into the filter
bed.
 Effective utilization of the filter bed to store deposited
impurities of even very turbid river water
 RSF are mostly built open with raw water passing down the
filter bed by gravity.

101
Figure 2.23: Rapid sand filters

102
 Mechanisms of impurity removal
 The most important phenomena include:
A. Mechanical Straining
 Removal of suspended particles that are too large to pass
through pores of the filter bed.
Complete removal of suspended matter larger than 20 µm
Partial removal “finely divided suspended matter (5 or10
µm)’’.
 Colloidal matter (0.001-1µm) and bacteria can not be
removed.
 Mechanical straining - takes place almost entirely at the
surface of the filter

103
Figure 2 . 24: Removal of impurities by mechanical
straining

104
 B. Sedimentation
 Removal of finely divided suspended particulates by
precipitation up on the sides of the sand grains, in
exactly the same way as in any ordinary setting tank.
 Depend on surface area of the sand grains:
With a pore space (P), one m 3 of filter sand with a
diameter (d) has a gross surface area of 6/d (1-P) m2
 For a normal porosity of 40% and a diameter of 0.2
mm, this gross area amounts to no less than 18000
m2 per m3 filtering material.

105
 C. Adsorption
There are two major mechanisms of adsorption
1. Passive adsorption:
 Retaining of impurities on the sticky gelatinous layer of
bacterial growth and organic coating of the sand grains.
2. Active adsorption:
 Removal of impurities by :
 The physical attraction between two particles ( Van der waals forces) and
 The electrostatical attraction between opposite electrical charges ( Coulomb
forces).

106
Figure 2. 25: Adsorption of impurities on the sand grains

107
 Clean sand has a negative charge so that :
 Adsorb (active) positively charged particles such as –
iron & Aluminum hydroxide flocs; iron, manganese
ions, etc.
 Colloidal matters of organic origin & bacteria, mostly
have a negative charge, are consequently not adsorbed.
 At the start of the operation, there will be no removal of
negatively charged impurities.
 During ripening period of the filter, there is only
adsorption of positively charged particles.

108
 Charge of the coating on the sand grains will be reversed and
becomes positive.
 Negatively charged particles will, then, be adsorbed till the over all
charge reverses once again .
There is an ever changing sequence of negatively & positively changed
coatings on the sand grains.

109
Application of RSF
 There are several applications of RSF, like:
i. In the treatment of groundwater.
For the removal of iron and manganese.
To assist the filtration process, aeration is frequently
provided as a pre-treatment to form insoluble oxides
of iron and manganese.

110
Figure 2. 26: Rapid filtration of pre-treated (aerated)
water

111
ii. In the treatment of lakes and rivers with low turbidity
content
 Produce clear water, which may contain pathogens. A
final treatment such as chlorination is then necessary to
obtain bacteriologically safe water.
iii. In the treatment of river water with high turbidity
 RSF may be used as a pretreatment to reduce the load
on the succeeding slow sand filters.

112
Figure 2. 27: Rapid filtration followed by slow sand filtration

113
iv. RSF can also be applied for treating water that has been clarified by
coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation.

Figure 2. 28: Rapid filtration after sedimentation, coagulation and flocculation

processes.

114
Types of rapid filters
 Rapid filters may be classified based on:
 Hydraulic head: Gravity or Pressurized filter
 Flow direction: Up flow or Down flow filter
 Filtration rate: Constant or Declining filter
Hydraulic head
 Gravity or pressurized filter
 Compared with the gravity-type, pressurized filters are fitted
with a watertight steel to enclose the filter bed together with
the filter bottom.

115
 The water pressure applied on the filter bed is the driving
force for the filtration process.
 Limitation:
 It is not readily possible to inspect the condition of the media.
Installation, operation and maintenance is not easy
Are not very well suited for application in small treatment
plants.

116
Figure 2. 29: Pressurized rapid filter

117
 Flow direction
 Up flow or down flow filter
 Up flow filters provide from a coarse-to-fine filtration
process.
The coarse bottom layer of the filter bed filters out the
major part of the suspended impurities.
 No great increase in head loss.
Objection
Hygienic problems, and
Contamination of the filter units during backwashing.
 Frequently applied as pretreatment process before gravity-
type rapid filters or slow sand filters.
118
Figure 2. 30: Up flow filters

119
 Filtration rate
 Constant-rate filter
Need filtration-rate control system to compensate for the
increased head loss due to clogging of the filter bed. i.e.
 Inlet rate control devices: Equal distribution of the constant
flow to the filters, often by overflow weirs, called " flow
splitting", and
 Outlet rate control devices: Throttling valves tied to flow-
measuring or differential pressure or water level devices.
 Declining-rate filter: In cases where:
No rate controlling devices are used and the filter inlet is
placed below the minimum water level.

120
 Filtration will take place at a declining rate.
Cleaning of the filter bed
 Cause: Clogging of the filter bed by impurities.
When a head loss of 2 to 2.5m is reached .
 Method of cleaning: Backwashing.
This involves directing a high-rate of water flow back
through the filter bed .
 Expansion and scouring of the filter bed so that clogging particles will be
washed out.

 Is a quick operation: no more than about half an hour.

 It can be done as frequently as required, if necessary each
day.
121
 Yet the amount of the wash water (from the filtered water
production) used need to be considered.
 A limit have to be placed on the frequency of
backwashing.
 If the filter runs fall below six hours, then there will be only a
small net output of filtered water available for drinking water
supply.
 Then some change in operation will be necessary, for
example improving the pre-treatment in the sedimentation
stage.
 Duration of filter run can be from 1 to 3 days.

122
 For fine filter bed material, the scouring action produced
by the wash water may not be sufficient to keep the
filter bed clean in the long run.
Provide an additional scour by using air and water in
combination of backwashing.
 This, however, is much more complex than backwashing with water
only, and is generally not recommended for small water treatment
plants.

123
Figure 2. 30: Backwashing

124
 For a filter bed of sand (specific weight: 2.65 g/cm 3) typical
backwash rates giving about 20% expansion are listed in table
2.6.
Table 2.5: Typical backwash rates
d(mm) 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
T (°C) Backwash rate (m3/m2.h)

10 12 17 22 28 34 40 47 54 62
20 14 20 26 33 40 48 56 64 73
30 16 23 30 38 47 56 65 75 86
D = average grain size of filter sand (mm)
T = backwash water temperature (°C)
V = backwash rate (m3/m2.h)

125
Design considerations of RSF
 Four parameters need to be selected:
1. The grain size of the filter material;
2. The thickness of the filter bed;
3. The depth of the supernatant water;
4. The rate of filtration.
These design factors should be based on experience obtained in
existing plants that treat the same or comparable raw water.
In the absence of such experience, the results obtained with a pilot
plant operating experimental filters can be used.

126
 The quality of the influent water (usually pre-treated)
greatly influences the range of the design parameters (
table 2.6).

127
Table 2.6.: indicative design ranges for rapid filtration
Design Down flow RSF Down flow RSF Up flow direct
parameter using using uniform filtration
conventional sand
sand
Grain size of Grain size: 0.45 Grain size: Grain size: 0.59
filter medium - 2.0 mm 0.84- 1.68 mm - 2.0 mm
Effective size: Effective size: Effective size:
0.45- 0.55 mm 1.0 - 1.2 mm 0.75- 0.85 mm
Filter bed 0.6 - 0.8 m 0.8 - 1.2 m 1.6 - 2.0 m
thickness
Supernatant 0.6 - 2.0 m 0.8 - 2.5 m Not applicable
water depth
Filtration rate 5 -7.5 m/h 7.5 - 12,5 m/h 5 - 10 m/h
Support layer 0.4 - 0.6 m 0.3 - 0.5 m 0.6 - 0.8 m
thickness

128
 Rapid filtration plant layout
 The required capacity Q (m 3/ h ) can be calculated as:
Q = (n-1) A x r
Where:
n= Number of filter bed or units (minimum 2),
A= Unit filter bed area (m 2) .
r = The selected rate of filtration (WOREST SENARIO!!).
 Suitable combinations of n and A:
 For small plants there is little choice.
 For larger plants the choice should be such that the cost of
construction is minimized.

129
 As a tentative design step, A (m 2) , may be taken as
about
3.5 * n.
 For economy in construction and operation, the filter
units should be set in a compact group with the influent
and effluent lines and as short as possible.
 Allowance should be made for a future expansion of the
plant.

130
 2.1.6 DISINFECTION
 Is the destruction or at least complete inactivation of harmful
micro-organisms present in raw water.
 It is considered the last barrier in water treatment, and
 In the absence of other methods of treatment, it may be
resorted to as a single treatment against bacterial
contamination of drinking water.
 Relevance in water treatment:
Storage, sedimentation, coagulation and flocculation, as
well as filtration processes do not assure that the treated
water is bacteriological safe.

131
Factors that affect the disinfection process include:
1. The nature and number of micro-organisms:
Certain organisms like parasites and viruses may not be
destroyed or completely inactivated by disinfection.
2. The type and concentration of the disinfectant used.
Higher concentrations are co- related to higher efficiencies.
3. The temperature of the raw water to be disinfected.
The higher the temperature the more rapid the disinfection
process will be.

132
4. The time of contact.
The disinfection effect becomes more complete when the
disinfectant remains in contact with the water longer.
5. Quality of the raw water to be disinfected.
Like turbidity: "protection" site for micro-organisms.
6. pH value of the water:
For example, Chlorine has better disinfection power at pH
values below 7,
At higher pH the chorine compound present is CIO- which has
a lesser bactericidal effect than HOCl.
7. Mixing: for proper dispersal of the disinfectant throughout the
raw water.
133
 Ways and methods of water disinfection
 For small community water supply, the way of
disinfection depends on nature of the population
distribution, i.e.
Scattered population, disinfection can be applied at
household level.
Higher population density, a "central” water
disinfection system is more efficient.
 There are two methods of water disinfection : Physical
and chemical methods.

134
I. Physical disinfection
 At family level: boiling and solar disinfection are the two
principal physical water disinfection methods.
 Addressed in detail at ‘Small scale water treatment methods’
section.
II. Chemical disinfection
 Chemicals that can act as strong oxidant to destroy micro-
organisms, includes:
 Hydrogen peroxide and metallic peroxides,

135
 Lime,
 Potassium and calcium permanganate,
 Ozone
 Halogens: iodine, bromine, chlorine and its compounds,
 Metals like copper, silver, mercury and zinc

136
 Apart from the potential to destroy micro-organisms, a
good chemical disinfectant should also possess the
following important characteristics :
 Quick and effective
 Readily soluble in water at concentrations required
for the disinfection
 Capable of providing residual effect
 Not imparting bad tastes, odor or color to the raw
water
 Not toxic to human and animal life

137
 Easy to detect and measure in water
 Not producing disinfection by - products ( DBPs )
 Easy to handle, transport, apply and control
 Simple or " appropriate technology" devices for
dosing
 Readily (locally) available
 Low cost
Yet, there is no any disinfectant that complies with all of
the above characteristics, for example:
Ozone, iodine, bromine, potassium permanganate
and metallic ions categorized as “far from complying“138
 Only a few chemicals, like chlorine and its compounds, may be
categorized “almost complying” with the requirements for
good disinfectant.
Ozone
 A very strong oxidant which is effective in destroying organic
matter and in eliminating compounds that impart
objectionable taste or color to the raw water.
 Has no measurable residual effect
 Leads to the formation of both inorganic and organic DBP
The commonest one are bromates, bromoform,
bromoacetic acid, aldehides, ketones and carboxilic acids,
which are carcinogenic.
139
 Has high installation and operation costs, the need for
continuous supply of power as well.
 Used in industrialized countries and not recommended
practice for small systems in developing countries.

Iodine
 It has attractive properties as a disinfectant (in solution, drops
or tables forms), i.e.:
Has an effective bactericide and virucide power over a wide
range of pH.
Unlike other halogens, it is more effective virucide at
higher pH values. 140
 It has been widely used for individual water supplies and
for small batches of water disinfection.
 Limitations of application in water treatment:
It is more costly (about ten times more expensive)
than chlorine.
It may have physiological effects on iodine -sensitive
people, due to prolonged exposure from drinking
water.
Its high volatility in aqueous solution is also factor
against its use except in emergency situations.

141
 Bromine
 Compared with chlorine and iodine, bromine is a more
effective amoebic cysticide throughout the pH range.
 Its residual is more persistent than that of chlorine.
limitations
It is not easily available everywhere and is dangerous to
manipulate,
It is more costly than chlorine
Little experience exists for its use as disinfectant for
drinking water and not recommended for small water
supplies. 142
 Potassium permanganate
 Is a powerful oxidizing agent and has been found to be
effective against vibrio cholera.
 It has staining problem on containers.
Metallic ions
 Several metallic ions (gold, silver, copper, mercury, etc) have
germicidal properties called oligodynamia.
Limitations
Gold is expensive;
Copper is good as an algaecide but not so good as a
bactericide; 143
Silver seems to be the only metal with relatively good
characteristics for water disinfection.
 It is added to treat water by dosing it from solutions or by direct
electrolysis of silver or silver coated electrodes in the running raw water.
 It is not very toxic to human beings with very low dose in water treatment,
i.e. in the range of 20-75 micrograms / liter.
 Residual silver is not likely to decay easily, and it does not produce taste,
odors, color or DBPs.

144
Limitations
It is not as quick as other disinfectants.
It is not a very good virucide.
Its efficiency is affected by organic matter or salts
present in the raw water.
It is costly than low - cost disinfectants: tens or even
hundreds times expensive.

145
 Chlorine and its compounds
 Even though are not perfect disinfectants, they have a number
of highly valuable characteristics, i.e.:
1. Have a broad-spectrum germicidal potency and show a good
persistence in water distribution systems.
 Have residual effects that can be easily measured and
monitored after the water has been treated and /or
delivered to the users.
2. Equipment needed for dosage is simple, reliable and low-
cost.
 A number of “appropriate technology " feeders have proved to
be easy to use, functional and accepted by local operators.
146
3. Readily (locally) available even in remote location in
developing countries.
4. Economic and cost effective.
Mechanism of action:
 Chlorine kills pathogens such as bacteria and viruses by
breaking the chemical bonds in their enzymes .
 One or more of the hydrogen atoms in the molecule of enzymes are replaced by
chlorine. This interfere with the normal functions of enzymes and result in death
of the pathogens.

147
 The most popular forms of chlorine are:
• Chlorine gas
• Chlorinated lime
• High-concentration hypochlorite & Sodium hypochlorite.

 The strength of chlorine and its compounds is expressed in

terms of active chlorine content.
Active chlorine is the percentage by weight of molecular
chlorine that would be delivered by a molecule of chlorine
compound (up on dissociation).
 Example, if a solution of chlorine or its compounds contain
10% of active chlorine, this is equivalent to 10 g of chlorine gas
being bubbled and totally absorbed in 100 ml (100g) of water.
148
Chlorine
 Is toxic (penetrating and irritating odor) gas with
greenish yellow color and found in nature only in the
combined state, chiefly with sodium as common salt
(NaCl).
 It is heavier than air and can be compressed to form a
clear amber-colored(Yellowish-brown or Orange) liquid.
 Liquid chlorine is slightly soluble in water,
approximately 1 percent by weight (1g/100 ml of
water) at 100C.
 It evaporates under normal atmospheric temperature
and pressure. 149
 Commercially, chlorine is manufactured by the electrolysis of
brine, with caustic soda and hydrogen as by-products.
 As a dry gas, chlorine is non - corrosive but in the presence of
moisture it becomes highly corrosive to all metals except
silver, titanium, gold and lead.

Chlorinated lime (Bleaching powder)

 Application : Before the advent of liquid chlorine.
 It is a loose combination of slaked lime and chlorine gas, with
the approximate composition of : CaC1 2.Ca(OH)2.H2O +
Ca(OCl)2.2Ca(OH)2.

150
 When added to water, it decomposes to give
hypochlorous acid (HOCl).
 Fresh chlorinated lime has active chlorine content of 33-
37%.
 Chlorinated lime is unstable.
Exposure to air, light and moisture makes the active
chlorine content fall rapidly.
The compounds should be stored in a dark, cool and
dry place; in closed, corrosion-resistant containers.
High - Concentration hypochlorite (HCH)
 Has active chlorine content of 60-70% , twice as strong 151
as chlorinated lime.
 Retain their original strength for more than a year under
normal storage conditions.
 Available in small volume packages or in bulk of granular or
tablet form.
Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl)
 Usually contains 10-15% active chlorine as commercial
product.
 Household bleaching solutions of sodium hypochlorite
usually contain only 3-5% available chlorine.

152
Pre-and post - chlorination and disinfection by - products
Pre-chlorination:
 Is the application of chlorine prior to any other water
treatment processes in the control of algae, taste and
odor.
Post-chlorination:
 Is the application of chlorine as disinfectant at the end
of water treatment process.
 Some organic matter (called precursors) in the raw water
may result in the production of disinfection by -
products (DBPs).
153
The most characteristic constituents of the DBPs are
 Some of the THMs are carcinogenic.
 Though this is true, the risk of having widespread
outbreaks of diarrhoeas and other water- related
diseases due to the lack of disinfection largely
outweighs the risk of having some cases of cancer.
The WHO and the USEPA strongly recommend no
jeopardizing the microbiological safety of water in
order to prevent eventual cases of cancer.
 Volume 1 of the WHO Guidelines for drinking water
Quality states: "An efficient disinfection should never be
compromised".
154
Chlorination in practice
Practice:
• Through bubbling of chlorine gas or by dissolving
chlorine compounds in the raw water.
Chemistry
 In the case of chlorine gas, the reaction that takes place
is:
C12 + H2O ↔ H+ + Cl- + HOCl
 In the case of sodium hypochlorites, the reaction
proceeds as follow:
NaOCl + H2O ↔ Na+ + OH- + HOCl 155
 In the case of chlorinated lime (The portion that takes
part in the reaction is Ca(OCl) 2):
Ca (OCl)2 + 2H2O ↔ Ca2++ 2OH- + 2HOCl
• Hydrochloric acid (HCl), as well as sodium and calcium
hydroxides formed in the different reactions do not take
part in the disinfection process.
• The disinfectant species, the hypochlorous acid (HOCl);
dissociates in water as follows:
HOCl ↔ H+ + OCl-

156
 pH of the raw water governs the relative quantities of
HOCl and OCl– (HOCl is more effective/efficient
disinfectant than OCl –)
Both hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and hypochlorite ion
(OCl –) present to some degree when the pH of the
water is between 6 and 9 (the usual range for natural
and drinking water sources).
When the pH value of the chlorinated water is 7.5,
each account for 50% of the composition.

157
Fig 2.31 Concentration of HOCl and OCl- at different pH values of water.
158
 For effective chlorination process, pH value of the raw water
needs to be monitored.
Dose of Chlorine
• The amount of chlorine or its compound added to raw water is
usually measured as the number of milligrams added to each
liter of water (mg/l).
Chlorine dose = chlorine demand + residual chlorine

159
Chlorine demand:
 Is the amount of chlorine consumed during disinfection of
raw water.
Residual chlorine
 Is the amount of chlorine (either free or combined) that
remains after chlorine demand of the raw water is
satisfied.
 Cope with any post-contamination (for example in the distribution
network).

160
 The residual chlorine is also important as a check on the
effectiveness of chlorine dosage (complete disinfection
process)
 There are two forms of residual chlorine:
• Free residual chlorine, and
• Combined residual chlorine
 Contact time: Is the time required for the reaction between
chlorine and impurities (like micro-organisms) present in the
raw water.
 The minimum contact time recommended for chlorination of
raw water is 30 minutes and the monitoring should be done
after this time has elapsed. 161
 WHO recommendation for proper chlorination:
• Residual chlorine: > 0.5 mg/l
• Contact time > 30 minutes
• pH: < 8
• Turbidity level of the treated water: < 5 NTU; but
ideally < 1 NTU
Determination of residual chlorine
 Several methods are available to measure residual
chlorine in water. This includes:

162
1. N-diethyl-para -phenylenediamine method (DPD)
 It is colorimetric method of measurement.
• Available free chlorine reacts instantly with DPD to
produce a reddish tint color in the absence of iodine.
 Standard DPD-potassium permanganate solutions are
used to produce colors of various intensities, which is
more stable than that of the Orthotolidine method.

163
2. Orthotolidine method
 Is a colorimetric procedure.
Principle:
 Orthotolidine, an aromatic compound, is oxidized in an
acid solution by chlorine, chloramines and other
oxidants to produce a yellow-colored complex, the
intensity of which is directly proportional to the amount
of oxidants (chlorine) present in the sample.
 The method is suitable for routine determination of
residual chlorine not exceeding 10 mg/l.

164
 Orthotolidine has been known to be carcinogenic and
should be handled with care.
 The presence of natural color and turbidity interferes
with the color development in these methods.
Application of chlorination
 The most convenient chlorine compound for household
level application is sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl).
Disinfect small water bodies (dug wells, small
reservoirs, etc).

165
 Disinfection of water, for larger community supply, by
gaseous chlorine is very economical and is the
commonest form of chlorine application worldwide.
 The most commonly used gas system consists of:
 A cylinder with the gas,
 A regulator with a Rota meter (feed rate indicator)
and
 An injector.
 A mixture of water and gas is injected at the application
point, where the gas diffuses and dissolves.

166
Figure 2.32: Chlorine gas system
167
Advantages of gaseous Chlorine
• Is widespread technology : produced in almost every county
• Is cheapest chemical
• Most widely used in the world: > 90% world population
Disadvantages of gaseous Chlorine
• Is costly system for very small villages
• It needs ancillary equipment
• Personnel need training
• Can be dangerous if not properly operated
• Not recommended for systems treating less than 500m 3
168
water/day
Operation & Maintenance tips
• Care should be taken towards leaks.
• Personnel should be strict on safety regulations and
always use protective equipment .
Chlorine solution
 Is the most popular form of chlorine application to
disinfect water under rural and small community
settings.
It is simple, easy, and low- cost appropriate
technology devices can be used.

169
 SMALL SCALE WATER TREATMENT
Application:
 At household level, under emergency, temporary
settlement areas, and where there is no well organized
municipal water supply.
 The household applications include:
1. Boiling
2. Home made filtration
3. Solar disinfection
4. Chemical disinfection and
5. Households Water Storage practice
170
 Multi-stage and integrated concepts can be applied to
the small scale household water treatment processes.
1. Boiling
 It is one of the most reliable methods of disinfecting
water at household level.
Process:
 The raw water is brought to the boiling point and is kept
boiling for 15 to 20 minutes.
 All forms of microorganisms, including the most
resistant spores or cysts, will be destroyed.

171
 It imparts flat taste to the water, due to loss of dissolved gases
(oxygen)
 Solution: keep the boiled water for a few hours in partially filled containers
(aeration).

 Factors to be considered:
Continuous effort to develop the habit of drinking boiled
water among community members.
Care must be taken to avoid recontamination of the boiled
water either during storage or consumption.
 It must be stored in a clean, firmly covered container, preferably the one used
to boil the water .

172
 2. Home made filtration
 Can take up different forms, including:
i. Homemade sand filter
 It can be made from locally available containers such as steel
barrels, drums, etc.
 The components and basic principles of operation are the
same as that of a slow sand filter.
 The minimum depth of filter bed (fine sand) should not be
less than 60 cm.
 Underlying 20 cm deep Clean coarse sand supported on
20 cm deep clean round gravel bed.
173
Figure 2.33: Homemade sand filter 174
 If properly constructed and maintained, home made sand
filtration process can remove water pollutants including:
 Turbidity, taste and odor,
 Cysts and ova of parasites, as well as other relatively larger
organisms.
 Some of the limitations of a homemade sand filter are:-
1. It is not reliable means to remove all forms of pathogens ,
particularly viruses and some bacteria.
2. Problem of clogging, particularly if the raw water is turbid.

175
Operation:-
1. There must be a continuous flow of raw water over the
filter bed.
2. The rate of filtration should normally be controlled not to
be more than 1.5 liters per minute.
 This rate will be achieved after the filter has been in
operation for a few days.
3. The top-most layer of the sand must be scraped off,
cleaned and replaced over a fixed time period.

176
II. Home candle filters
 Commercially made for filtering individual water
supplies.
 These are various types and sizes, known by different
trade names.
 The center is a porous cylinder made from high-quality
unglazed porcelain.
 The efficiency of filtration depends upon pore size of the
candle.
Generally the pores size (radius) varies from 0.3 µm
to about 50 µm.
177
Figure 2. 34: Candle filters 178
Operation
• The raw water to be filtered must be reasonably clear
(turbidity), to reduce clogging of the candle pores.
• The candle needs dismantling once a week, for washing
and sterilizing using boiling water.

179
 Some of the limitations of candle filters are:-
1. All forms of pathogenic organisms may not be removed
from the raw water. Viruses, for example, cannot be
removed by a candle filter.
2. The rate of filtration is normally very low, although the
rate can be increased by having a three-candle or four-
candle filter.
3. Are relatively too expensive for wide use by the general
public.

180
III. Stone filters
 Are similar to candle filters, yet carved from locally
available porous stones.
 Are generally difficult to clean and heavy to lift,
 Have the advantage of being relatively inexpensive if
locally available.
 This method of filtration could be possible in Ethiopia
using the local “Beha” stone.
Further researches need to be conducted on the
method.

181
Figure 2. 35: Stone filter 182
IV. Cloth filtration
 Effective elimination of dracuncuiliasis (Guinea Worm
Disease).
Primary strategy for the control of guinea-worm
disease.
 Filters should be of mesh size less than 130 m; to
remove all infected intermediate hosts (copepods
infected by the microfilaria).
Monofilament synthetic cloth (nylon), with a mesh
size of 100-130m, is most suitable because it clogs
less rapidly and is easily cleaned.
Cotton cloth can be used but tends to clog rapidly. 183
Figure 2.36: Cloth filtration
184
 3. Solar disinfection (SODIS)
 Disinfection based on the time/ temperature (Solar)
relationship, to destroy pathogens present in raw water.
 Heating water at 62.80C for 30 minutes or 71.70C for 15 seconds is
sufficient to remove waterborne bacteria, rotaviruses and enteroviruses
from contaminated water.
 Cysts of Giardia lambia are inactivated by heating the water at 56 0C for 10
minutes.

 Application: by beaming sunshine onto transparent

containers of the water sample with exposure times of 6
hours (2 days under very cloudy conditions).

185
 Procedures of SODIS
1. Water from contaminated sources , with known microbial
content (load) is filled into transparent water
ottles/containers.
 For oxygen saturation, bottles can be filled three quarters, then shaken
for 20 seconds (with the cap on), then filled completely.
 Raw water with turbidity higher than 30 NTU must be filtered before
exposure to sunlight.
2. Filled bottles are then exposed to the sun for 6 hours (2 days under very
cloudy conditions).
 Better temperature effects can be achieved if bottles are placed on a
corrugated roof as compared to thatched roofs.
186
3. Consumption of the treated water.
 Minimization of the risk for re-contamination :
The water should be stored and consumed directly from
the bottle used for disinfection or poured into clean
drinking cups.
 Re-filling and storage in other containers increases the risk
of contamination.

187
Figure 37: Guidelines for application of SODIS at household level

188
Figure 2.37: Solar disinfection

189
 There are two types (systems) of SODIS, i.e.
The continuous and batch types.
 The continuous system comprises an exposure vessel or
reactor and a tank where treated water exchanges heat
with raw water (with out mixing).

190
Fig. 2.38 Continuous solar disinfection system
191
Fig 2. 39: Batch solar disinfection system 192
 4. Chemical Disinfection
A. Chlorine or its Compounds
 Chlorine or its compounds can be applied to disinfect
water on a small scale.
 Application of chlorine-based compounds : including
under disaster conditions.
Two suggestions:
 First: it is important that the population should never
prepare their own stock solutions from high
concentration hypochlorite.

193
 The user should be given a disinfectant solution
ready to be used in a batch system (for disinfection of
a family tank or container).
 Second: an ideal stock solution containing 5000 mg of
active chlorine/liter is applied in emergency situations.
How to prepare stock solutions
 It is possible to prepare stock solutions for any chlorine-
based products using the following formula.

194
Where:
• V water = Volume of stock solution to be prepared, in
liters
• C stock = concentration of stock solution intended (in case
of 5000 mg/l, then the value for C stock should be = 5000)
 C product = Chlorine concentration in the product as
specified by the manufacturer (in the formula, only the
number should be placed, for example 65 when the 195
chlorine concentration in the products is 65% )
• 10 = Factor in order that the result be given in grams of the
product
• W product = Weight (in grams) of product to dissolve for
preparation of the stock solution.
 The suggested disinfection dose is:
5 mg/l in the case of extreme emergency,
2 mg/l under less stressing conditions.
 The minimum contact time should be 30 minutes.

196
Table 2.1: Appropriate dilutions with stock solution

Volume of Volume of stock solution ( of 5000 volume of stock solution ( of 5000 mg/l)
water to be mg/l) to add for a 5 mg/l final to add for a 2 mg/l final concentration
disinfected concentration
(liters )

1 20 drops = 1 ml 8 drops

5 100 drops = 5 ml 40 drops = 2 ml

10 10 ml 4 ml

20 20 ml 8 ml

100 100 ml 40 ml

200 200 ml 80 ml

1000 1 liter 400 ml

197
 EXERCISE
 Exercise: An environmental health officer plans to disinfect a
dug well water source , which was suspected to be a cause of
water borne disease epidemic in a certain community, using
sodium hypochloride solution (15 %). The diameter of the well
is 0.7 m with 3m deep water table and a total depth of 10 m
both measured from the ground surface. Based on the
aforementioned case, determine dose of the disinfectant.
 Calculate the dose of chlorinated lime (35%) required to
disinfect the dug well water source.

198
B. Iodine and its Compounds
 Iodine and its compounds have also been effectively used for
individual water disinfection.
Iodine is believed to be a better disinfectant than chlorine.
 Tablets of iodine are available under various trade names (
Globaline, Potable Aqua, etc).
 Tincture of iodine (2%) applied at the rate of 2 drop per liter
gives satisfactory results.
 Iodine, however, is relatively expensive for ordinary use and
imparts the familiar medicinal iodine smell to the treated
water.
199
C. Silver
 Colloidal silver : is toxic to most micro-organisms at
concentrations of about 0.05 mg/l .
 It is of value for small portable filter units for field use:
Silver-impregnated gravel filter candles remove
turbidity and provide disinfection.
 Its cost is higher (for use other than very small supplies).

200
 5. Households Water Storage
 Well practiced household storage :
 Reduce turbidity,
 Reduce bacteria and eggs of parasites
(sedimentation), and
 Prevent schistosomiasis : as the chances of cercaria
survival after 24 hours of water storage will be
reduced.
 The principal associated health risk : is the ease of
recontamination during transport and storage,
particularly if the members of a family or community do
not practice good hygiene. 201
 Good hygienic measures include the following:
• Careful storage of household water and regular
cleaning of all household water storage facilities;
• Construction, proper use, and maintenance of
latrines;
• Regular hand-washing, especially after defecation
and before eating or preparing food;
• Careful storage and preparation of food; etc

202
 The most important elements of water storage can be
summarized as follows:-
• Use sources with potable water or treat the water,
either at home or in a storage tank.
• Store water in containers fitted with lid.
• Store the water container at a height beyond the
reach of children and animals.
• Fit a tap to the container for drawing water.

203
 SUPPLEMENTARY WATER TREATMENT

 Objective : to remove water pollutants which are

resistant to the conventional treatment process of
water.
The water pollutants include: plant nutrients
(nitrogen and phosphorus) , minerals/ chemicals
(especially in groundwater sources),etc.
 Generally the removal of chemicals from water is more
difficult and much more expensive than removing
microbiological or physical contaminants.

204
Removal of fluoride from water
 Fluoride is a normal constituent of natural water samples
mainly derived from geological formations.
Health effects of excess fluoride in potable waters
 Fluoride concentrations of up to 1.0 mg/l in potable water are
beneficial to the normal growth and development of bone and
teeth among children ,to a lesser extent, adults.
In several developed countries fluoridation of water
supplies is practiced if the concentration of fluoride is
below 1.0 mg/l

205
 Health effects of fluoride (Exposure to drinking water):
1. Mild dental fluorosis: between 1 and 1.2 mg F -/ L.
 In temperate climate, at concentrations above 1.5-2
mg/L of drinking water.
 In warmer areas, there is increased risk attributed to
drinking water containing lower concentrations of
fluoride.
2. Skeletal fluorosis
 More than 3-6 milligram of F- per liter ,
3. Crippling skeletal fluorosis
 20 to 40 mg F-/l acute exposure or > 10 mg F -/l chronic206
 W HO guideline value (maximum permissible level ) for potable
water supplies is 1.5 F-/ L.
National standards for fluoride is set by considing climactic
conditions, volume of water intake, diet and other factors in
setting
Fluoride control methods
I. Search for alternative water sources with a lower fluoride level :
• If there is significantly and consistently higher concentration
of F- in drinking water than the permissible level.

207
 The options are:
(a) Provision of a new and alternate source of water with
acceptable fluoride levels:
 Looking for safe water source in the vicinity by drilling a
new well and /or drawing the water from different
depths, as leaching of fluoride in to ground water is a
localized phenomenon.
(b) Transporting water from a distant safe source:
 Has high initial cost.

208
(c) Blending (Mixing ) high fluoride with low fluoride water:
 It can be an appropriate long-term solution provided
that water source with low fluoride content is available
within reasonable distance and is of acceptable quality
with respect to other characteristics.
(d) Dual water sources:
 If there are sources with low fluoride levels available in
a community, the source can be strictly limited to
drinking and cooking. The water source with high
fluoride can then be used for other purposes.

209
(e) Rainwater harvesting: in two ways:
i. Rainwater harvesting from individual household-roof
for family supply, and
ii. Harvesting storm (surface water) run-off to recharge
high-fluoride groundwater sources.

II. Defluoridation of water

 Applied when none of the above options is feasible.
 Defluoridation methods can be broadly divided into
three categories according to the main fluoride removal
mechanism: 210
  Chemical additive methods,
 Contact precipitation, and
 Adsorption/ion exchange methods
Chemical additive methods
 It involve the addition of water soluble chemicals to
remove fluoride from the raw water.
 Mechanism : by precipitation, co-precipitation, or
adsorption of fluoride onto the formed precipitate.
 Chemicals include lime used alone or with salts of
magnesium or aluminum along with coagulant aids.
211
 Treatment with lime and salts of magnesium makes the water
unsuitable for drinking due to high pH of the treated water.
 Treatment with alum and a small amount of lime is popularly
known as the Nalgonda technique (RENDWM, 1993), named
after the town in India where the method was first applied.
It involves sequential addition of lime (5% of alum),
bleaching powder (optional) and alum (Al 2 (SO 4) 3. 18H2O)
in to the water, followed by coagulation, sedimentation
and filtration.
A much higher dose of alum is required (150 mg of alum
/mg of F-), when compared to the doses used in routine
water treatment.
212
 Contact Precipitation
 It is a recent technique which utilize compounds of
calcium and phosphate.
 The presence of a saturated bone charcoal medium acts
as a catalyst for precipitation of fluoride either as CaF2,
and/ or fluorapatite (Ca10 (PO4)6F2 ) .
Adsorption/ion-exchange
 The raw water is passed through a bed containing
defluoridating adsorbent.
Fluoride is retained by the bed either by physical,
chemical or ion exchange mechanisms.
213
 The adsorbent gets saturated after a period of
operation and requires regeneration.
 Naturally occurring materials with fluoride uptake
capacity include: Bauxite, magnetite, kaolinite,
serpentine, various types of clays and red mud.
The general mechanism of fluoride uptake is by
exchange of metal lattice hydroxyl or other anionic
groups with fluoride .
None of the materials generally exhibit high fluoride
uptake capacities , which can be increased by
applying pre-treatment systems , like acid washing .
214
 Processed materials with fluoride uptake capacity
include: activated alumna, activated carbon, bone char,
defluoron-2 (sulphonated coal) and synthetic materials
like ion exchange resins .
 Among these materials, bone char and activated alumina are among the
methods that have been successfully employed.

215
 Iron and manganese removal
 Groundwater with low redox potential often contains soluble
iron (Fe2+) and manganese (Mn 2+) ions because:
Under the oxygen deficient condition some micro-
organisms reduce:
 Iron from trivalent to divalent form.
 Manganese is from quadrivalent to divalent form.

 Fe (OH) 3 and MnO2 in surface water retained by the receiving

Ponds and lakes, in to their sediment (bottom).

216
Impacts of excess iron and manganese in waters
 Not significant in terms of public health.
More than 0.3 mg/l of iron can impart reddish-brown
color in water , which deposit on plumbing fixtures.
High iron concentrations cause a bitter taste in
drinking water .
Manganese concentrations over 0.1 mg/l impart
brownish or blackish color in water, which cause
staining effect on laundry and bathroom fixtures.

217
  The presence of manganese often forms a coating in pipes, which may
slough off as a black precipitate.

Removal of dissolved iron from water:

 Removal of iron is less difficult than that of manganese.
Is based on the transformation of the water soluble
form of iron (Fe 2+) to the insoluble form of iron
(Fe(OH)3 ) by oxidation.
4Fe2+ + O2 + 2H2O 4 Fe 3+ + 4OH-
4 Fe3+ + 4OH- + 8H2O  4Fe (OH) 3 + 8H+

218
 Net reaction is: 4 Fe 2+ + O2 + 10H2O  4 Fe (OH)
+
3 + 8H

4 x 56 mg Fe 2+ = 2 x 16 mg O2
224 mg of Fe2+ = 32 of mg O2
 0.14 mg of O2 is required to oxidize 1 mg of Fe 2+ .

N.B. The pH of treated water decreases due to the

formation of H+
The rate of oxidation strongly depends on pH of the
water . The lower the pH  the lower the rate of
oxidation. 219
 In practice iron is removed from ground water by:
aeration followed by rapid sand filtration.
Removal of manganese from water
 Is based on oxidation of Mn 2+ to Mn4+ as follow:
6Mn2+ + O2 + 6H2 O  2Mn3O 4 + 12H+
2Mn3O4 + 2O2  6MnO2
 The net reaction is:
6Mn2+ + 3O2 + 6H2O  6MnO2 + 12H+
 0.29 mg of O2 is required to oxidize 1 mg of Mn 2+ .

220
 The rate of oxidation is very low when pH value of the
water is below 8.6.
 In RSF the oxidation may take place when pH value of
the water is higher than 7.0.
 The rate of oxidation of Mn 2+ in much lower than that of
Fe2+ in a rapid sand filter.
This explains the necessity to back wash Mn2+
removing filter, to avoid the removal of the catalyst
Mn3O4

221
 Chemical oxidants of Mn 2+ include: Cl2 and kMnO4
 Disadvantage of this procedure:
 More complicated treatment
 Excess of kMnO4 imparts a violet color to the water .
N.B. The removal of iron and manganese is in general combined
in one rapid sand filter (with or with out dosage of Cl 2 or
kMnO4).
 In the oxidation process, removal of iron is followed by that
of Mn2+
When the concentration of Fe 2+ is relatively high, the use of
separate filter beds (for Fe2+ and Mn2+ respectively) has222
advantages compared with the combined process.
  For example:
Optimum filter back wash procedures can be realize
for Mn2+ removal.
FeOH3 precipitate will not cover and inactive the
catalyst Mn3O4 .
 The disadvantage is that two filters in series are
required. But this is compensated by the possibility of
doubled rate of filtration.

223
 Removal of iron and manganese from water by oxidation
followed by filtration processes depend on:
a) The available O2 in water

Table 2.8: Saturation concentration

Temp Oo 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

O2 mg/1 14.6 12.8 11.3 10.1 9.2 8.4 7.6 7.1

224
b) The presence of biodegradable organic and inorganic
matter, e.g. CH4; BOD5; Fe2+; Mn2+; NO2- Which consume
oxygen
• In a dry filter, removal of up to 20 mg NH +4 /l can be
achieved due to the continuous aeration in the filter bed
(Filtration rate = 2-5 m/h; H = 1.5 -2 m)

225
 Removal of NH4+ from water
1. Breakpoint Chlorination
 When more chlorine is added than equivalent amount to
oxidize ammonium completely into nitrogen:
 Hyper chlorination: higher chlorine than the demand.
I. 2 NH4+ + 2C12 2NH2C1 + 4H+ + 2C1-
II. 2NH2C1 + 2C12 2NHC12 + 2H+ + 2C1-
III. 2NHC12 N2 + C12 +2H+ + 2C1-
__________________________________________
IV. 2NH4 + + 3C12 N2 + 8H+ + 6C1- 226
 5.92 mg of Cl 2 is required to oxidize 1 mg of NH4+
When excess of chlorine is added:
NHC12 + C12 NC13 + H+ + Cl
 The formed NC13 impart a bitter taste to the water, so
this reaction is not desired..

227
2. Bio- Oxidation
 Oxidation of ammonium by bacteria:
2NH+ 4 + 3O2 Nitrosomonas 2NO 2- + 4H+ + 2H2O
2NO2- + O2 Nitrobacter 2NO3-
_______________________________________________
__ 2NH+4 + 4O2 2NO3- + 4H+ + 2H2O
 Simplified form of the net oxidation reaction:
NH+4 + 2O2 NO3- + 2H+ + H2O
64 g of O2 is needed to oxidize 18 g of NH+4
3.6 mg of O2 = 1 mg of NH+4
228
3. Air stripping or volatilization
 Take place at higher pH values (10 to 11) of the raw
water , NH+4 has to be transformed to the volatile NH 3
compound.
NH+4 + OH- NH3 + H2O
(Non volatile ) (Volatile)
Consequently:
 High investment costs
 High energy consumption
 Chemical costs e.g. Ca(OH) 2
229
 Clogging occurs due to precipitation of CaCO
 Removal of nitrate
 Nitrate can be removed under ANOXIC conditions e.g. if
organic matter or FeS 2 is present in soil :
5 CH2O (g) + 4NO3- bacteria 2N2 + 4HCO3- + CO2 + 3H2O
5FeS2(s) +14NO3- + 4H+ 7N 2 +10SO4 + 5Fe2+ +
2H2O
 This reaction can be continued by :
5Fe2+ + NO3- + 12 H2O ½ N 2 + 5Fe (OH) 3 (s) +9H+
 More over NO2- can be formed :
CH2O(s) + 2NO3- 2 NO2- + H2O + CO2
230
 Treatment processes for NO 3-
Reverse osmosis
Ion exchange
Biological Denitrification
Distillation (reading assignments)
Electro dialysis (reading assignments)
Reverse osmosis:
 When pure water is separated from a salt solution by a
semi-permeable membrane and the pressure on the salt
solution exceeds the osmotic pressure:
231
 Water is transported through the membrane and salts
( cations and anions , like NO 3- ) rejected.
 Nitrate can be removed from water membranes that
operate at pressure between 14 and 70 bars. The
rejection efficiency of the membranes is between 90 -
99.5%

232
Table 2.9: Effect of reverse osmosis.
Parameter
Raw water Product

NO3- 50mg/l 7 mg/l

Cl- 23 " 3 "
SO4- 18 " 3 "
HCO3- 2.9 mmol/l 0.1 mmol/l
Ca2+ 3.3 " 0.1 "
pH 7.2 " 4.6 "

233
Disadvantage reverse osmosis
• Costly and discharge of brine
Ion exchange
 Anion exchanges consist of insoluble solid polymers e.g.
styrene, which act as carrier for quaternary ammonia groups.
This group has a positive charge.
• E.g. in the Cl- form: RN + Cl- = RN Cl- (R = Resin e.g. styrene)
• During the process NO 3- is exchanged with Cl- and removed
form the water.
• RNCl- + NO3- RNNO3- + Cl-

234
 When the anion exchanger is saturated with NO3-
regeneration with e.g. 10% NaCl solution is carried out:
RNNO3- + Cl- RNCl- + NO3-

235
Table 2.10: Effect of ion exchange

Parameter Raw water product

NO3- 50 mg/l 2 mg/l

Cl- 23 " 87 mg/l

SO4- 18 " 1 "

HCO3- 2.9 mmol/l 2.6 mmol/l

pH 7.2 7.2

236
Disadvantages
 It is costly, and
 Need management of the discharge from regeneration
process.
CHAPTER THREE
Water transmission and distribution
 Water transmission : Is transport of treated water to
service reservoir (if applicable).
 Water distribution: Is transport of treated water to the
point of usage.
237
 Water transmission
Methods of water transportation
 Depending on the topography and local conditions water may
be conveyed through:
• Free-flow conduits
• Closed conduits
• A combination of both
 The water conveyance will be carried out under force of
gravity or by pumping.
 Free-flow conduits are generally laid at a uniform slope that
closely follows the hydraulic grade line. 238
 Examples of such conduits are canals, aqueducts,
tunnels or partially filled pipes.
 Free-flow conduits have a limited application due to the
danger for contamination of treated water.
Such conduits may be used for transmission of raw
water.
 If a pipe or tunnel is completely full, the hydraulic
gradient and not the slope of the conduit will govern the
water flow.

239
 Pressurized pipelines can be laid up and/or downhill:
 Remain at sufficient depth below the hydraulic grade
line, i.e. certain minimum pressure is maintained in
the pipeline.
Are the most common means of transmission for
community water supply,
 Water transmission conduits (free flow or under pressure)
generally require a considerable capital investment.
Therefore it is necessary to:
Carefully consider all technical options and their
costs as well as
Discuss with the community members. 240
  Routes need, always, to be set with community
members.
 Make use of local knowledge and ensure cultural
acceptability (technically desirable routes may, for
example, run through a burial site or be unacceptable
for other local reasons).
Types of water conduits
1. Canals - are laid in areas where the required slope of
the conduit more or less coincides with the slope of the
terrain.
2. Aqueducts and tunnels - are constructed in hilly areas.
 Should be of such a size that they are approximately241
  Shorten the overall length of a water transmission
route.
3. Free-flow pipelines: are used to transport smaller
quantities of water than tunnels.
 Compared with canals and aqueducts they offer better
protection of water from pollution.
 Due to the free-flow conditions, simple construction
materials may be used, e.g. Glazed clay or concrete
pipes.

242
4. Pressurized pipelines
 The routing is much less limited by the topography of
the area to be traversed, than that of free-flow
conduits.
 A pressure pipeline may run up-and downhill and there
is considerable freedom in selection the pipeline
alignment.
Design parameters:
1. Design flow
 Usually, a service reservoir is provided to accumulate
and even out the variation in water demand (e.g. daily
fluctuation). 243
 It is supplied by the transmission main and is located
at a suitable position to be able to feed the
distribution system.
Its site needs to be chosen/ approved by the local
people, based on technical advice and their own
socio cultural criteria.
 The transmission main is normally designed for the
carrying capacity needed to supply maximum daily
water demand at constant flow rate.
All hourly variations in the water demand during the
day of maximum consumption are then assumed to
be evened out by the service reservoir.
244
 For a water supply with diesel engine or electric motor-driven
pumps, the daily pumping often is limited to 16 hours or less.
In such a case, the design flow rate for the transmission
main as well as the volume of the service reservoir need to
be adjusted accordingly.
2. Design pressure
 Is only relevant for pressurized pipelines.
 Consumer connection to transmission lines is rare,
 So the water pressure can be kept low, Provided that the
hydraulic grade line is positioned above the pipe over its
entire length and for all flow rates.
245
 A minimum of a few meters water column is also
required to prevent intrusion of pollution through
damaged parts of the pipe or faulty joints.
The operating pressure in the pipeline should not be
less than 4-5 meters water column throughout the
transmission system.
 High pressures in transmission pipes occur as a result of
long distances or specific topography.
 During supply by gravity the maximum pressure does
not occur under operating conditions.

246
 In order to limit the maximum pressure in a pipeline and
thus the cost of the pipes, the route can be divided into
sections separated by a break-pressure tank.
The function of such a tank is to limit the static
pressure by providing an open water surface at
certain places along the pipeline.

247
 If water is to be transported to higher elevations, the
maximum pressures will occur in the vicinity of pumping
stations.
It can be avoided by application of multistage
pumping along the transmission route.
 Critical pressures may also develop as a result of
pressure surge or water hammer in the pipeline.
The phenomenon is caused by :
 Instant or too rapid closure of valves, or
 Sudden pump starts or stops, e.g. due to electricity
failure.
248
 A longitudinal water wave created that may causes
over-and under-pressures .
 This is potentially a very dangerous situation that may
result in damage to the pipeline over long distances.
 Proper prevention includes:
 Construction of surge tanks, air vessels or water
tower,
 Selection of suitable pipe materials that can
withstand the highest pressures.,
 Strictly specifying and respecting the minimum shut-
off times for valves.
249
 Train and supervise valve operators and that operators
understand, and practice the proper regulation of the
valves.
3. Design velocity and hydraulic gradient
 A velocity range is established for two reasons.
i. A certain minimum velocity is required to prevent
water stagnation causing sedimentation and
bacteriological growth in the conduits.
ii. Maximum velocity has to be respected to control head
losses in the system as well as to reduce the effects of
water hammer.
250
 The flow velocity in canals, aqueducts and tunnels
usually ranges between 0.4 and 1.0 m/s for unlined
conduits, and up to 2 m/s for lined conduits.
 Flow velocity in pressurized transmission mains range
between 1 and 2 m/s.
Values may also be set for the hydraulic gradient,
primarily to limit the head losses, i.e. to minimize the
energy consumption for pumping the water.
Common values of the hydraulic gradients for
transmission pipes are around 0.005, which means 5
mwc of head loss per km of the pipe length.
251
Water transmission by pumping
 Is applied in cases when the water has to be transported
over large distances and/or to higher elevations.
 The pumping head is the total head provided by pumps,
and comprises:
Static head plus friction head loss for the design flow
rate.
 The head loss corresponding to the design flow rate can
be computed for several pipe diameters.
 Each combination of the pumping head and diameter
should be capable of supplying the required flow rate
over the required distance, and up to the service 252
 Smaller pipe diameters will require a higher pumping head to
overcome the increase in head losses, and the other way
round.
 The total cost, capitalized, is the basis for selecting the most
economical pipe diameter.
 Pipes with larger diameter have lower flow velocity of water,
i.e. potential water quality problems.

253
Selection of pumps
 Types of pumps: centrifugal, axial-flow, mixed-flow and
reciprocating pumps.
 The choice of pumps generally depend on pumping
head and capacity.

254
 Pumps with rotating parts have either a horizontal or a
vertical axis. The choice is generally based on:
The pump-motor drive arrangement, and
The site conditions.
At a site subject to flooding, the motor and any other
electrical equipment must be placed above the flood
level.
 During community water supply transmission a
substantial head is required.
This implies that the pumps selected frequently are
of the centrifugal (radial-flow) type.
255
 Many drinking water pumps are designed to run
(almost) continuously throughout a day.
 In such cases an increase in pump efficiency of a few
percent may represent a considerable saving in the
running costs over along period of time.

256