CHAPTER # 4

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

OF BEAMS
1/2
Dr. Nauman KHURRAM
Assistant Professor

Department of Civil Engineering

University of Engineering & Technology
Lahore
1
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BEAMS
INTRODUCTION
A beam is a structural member in which the major
deformation is bending.
The bending moment is primarily generated due to
transverse loads. This member carries the loads
throughout its span and transfers it to its ends with or
without accompanying moment.
Beam is a combination of a compression member on
one side of neutral axis and a tension member on the
other side, joined together through a shear element.
2
Following terms are used for various types of beams
according to their use:
Girder:
The primary beams that are frequently used at wide
spacing supporting the smaller beams and other structural
components are called girders.
Frequently, girders are made of built-up sections and carry
heavier loads over larger spans. These are supported
directly on columns (Figure 4.1).
Secondary Beam:
These are relatively smaller beams resting on primary
beams/girders carrying load of lesser part of roof and
having smaller span lengths (Figure 4.1).
3
 Secondary
Beams

Joist

Column

Main Beam (Girder)

Figure 4.1. Typical Plan of a Building Showing Layout of Columns and

Beams
4
Joists: Joists are less important beams that are closely
spaced and are frequently having truss-type webs.
These are closely spaced smaller beams resting on
secondary beams in majority of the cases.
With the presence of joists, the strength requirements of
the roof sheathing or slab are greatly reduced (Figure 4.1).
Purlins: These are roof beams spanning between trusses.
Roof sheathing is connected with purlins, which is in turn
are connected to panel points of the truss, with no direct
connection between the roof and the truss top chord.
Uniformly distributed roof load is carried by the purlins
and is converted into point loads acting at panel points of
the truss.
5
Because of inclination of the load with the centroidal axes
of the section and application of load on top chord, these
beams are subjected to biaxial bending along with torsion.
Stringers: Longitudinal bridge beams spanning between
floor beams and placed parallel to roadway are called
stringers (Figure 4.2).
Floor Beams: Floor beams are main girders of the bridge
spanning between trusses or plate girders and running
perpendicular to the roadway of the bridge (Figure 4.2).
Girts: Horizontal wall beams used to resist horizontal
bending due to wind acting on the side of an industrial
building are referred to as girts.
6
 R.C. Slab Shear
Connectors
Truss or
Plate Girder
Stringer
Floor Beam
Figure 4.2. Typical Cross-Section of a Steel Bridge.

Typical shear connectors for beams

7
Lintels: Lintels are members supporting a wall over
window or door openings.
Spandrels: In case of high-rise buildings, the masonry
walls are usually not able to withstand their self-weight
and the slab weight.
In such cases, beams are provided in exterior walls at
each floor level to support the wall load and perhaps
some roof load also.
These beams are termed as spandrels.

8
STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF BRIDGE

9
THE FLEXURE FORMULA
By denoting the elastic section modulus by S and the
applied bending moment by M, the bending stresses may
be calculated using the flexure formula as under:
Elastic bending stress,
My M M
Fb   
I I/y S
Using the above expression, the required section modulus
to resist a particular bending moment may be obtained as
follows:
M
S req 
Fa
Here, Fa = allowable bending stress 10
In a similar manner, plastic section modulus (Z) to provide
a particular ultimate moment capacity may be calculated
for a laterally supported and compact section beam by
using the formula: Mu
Z req 
Fy
STABILITY OF BEAM SECTIONS
Local Stability
If width over thickness ratio of the
compression flange is greater than a
certain limit, flange can buckle locally.
The phenomenon is called Flange
Local Buckling (FLB) and is shown in Figure 4.3. Flange Local
Figure 4.3. Buckling 11
Similarly, if depth over thickness ratio is greater for the web,
it can locally buckle or cripple under compression.
This phenomenon is called as Web Local Buckling (WLB).
Web local buckling usually occurs in a diagonal position and
is produced by the diagonal compression existing in the web
due to shear.
On the other hand, Web Crippling occurs due to local
compression transferred by the flange to the connecting
portion of web.

Buckling is
diagonal
Figure 4.4. perpendicular to
Web Instability the paper

(b) Web Crippling Due to

(a) Web Local Buckling
Concentrated Load 12
LOCAL BUCKLING
IN BEAM

Diagonal Web
local Buckling
Flange Local
Buckling

13
WEB CRIPPLING

14
LATERAL STABILITY
Due to lateral buckling of the compression zone, the section
is twisted as a whole due to the fact that tension zone
remains stable and tries to retain its position.
This combined twisting and buckling of beam in a lateral
direction is called Lateral Torsional Buckling (LTB).
It depends upon the laterally unsupported length besides the
loading and the sectional dimensions.

15
Unbraced or unsupported length of beam (Lb)
It is defined as the length of beam within its two sections
whose compression flange is laterally supported or
braced against twist of the cross section by perpendicular
beams, slab or by some other means.
In other words, it is the distance between two points
braced against lateral displacement of the compression
flange denoted by Lb.
The sections braced to prevent twist of the member are
considered better for the bracing against the lateral
torsional buckling.

16
LATERAL BRACING FOR THE BEAM

17
Lateral stability against LTB
AISC-F2 deals with doubly symmetric compact I-shaped
members and channels bent about their major axis.
These provisions are valid for sections having compact
webs and compact flanges.
The nominal flexural strength (Mn) is the lower value for
limits states of yielding and lateral - torsional buckling.
A member will be safe against lateral torsional buckling up
to its full plastic moment capacity if the unbraced length of
the beam (Lb) is not greater than Lp,
i.e.,
Lb  Lp for no LTB
18
where,
Lp = Limiting laterally unbraced length for full plastic bending
capacity (Mp = ZxFy) in uniform moment case (Cb = 1.0).
For I-shaped members including hybrid sections and channels
E
L p  1.76ry  50ry (for A-36 Steel)
Fy

A section may develop yielding only at some points in case

of inelastic buckling, when the unbraced length is between
the two limiting lengths Lp and Lr, that is, when,
Lp < Lb  Lr
Where,
Lr = Limiting laterally unbraced length for inelastic
torsional buckling, mm. 19
Mr = Limiting buckling moment dividing elastic and
inelastic buckling for Cb = 1.0, (Cb will be defined later)
= 0.7Fy Sx/106 kN-m
For doubly symmetric I-shaped members:
2
E Jc  0.7 Fy S x ho 
Lr  1.95 rts 1  1  6.76 
0.7 Fy S x ho  E Jc 
E
Lr  1.95 rts (very conservative estimate)
0.7 Fy

I y Cw I y h0
rts   for doubly symmetric I-sections
2

Sx 2S x
rts  Radius of gyration of the compression flange plus
one-sixth of the web for doubly symmetric I-sections
20
 bf
OR rts 
 1 h tw 
121  
 6b t 
 f f 

c = 1.0 for a doubly symmetric I-shape

ho = distance between the flange centroids
= d – tf
Cw = warping torsional constant for the section, mm6
I f ho2 I y ho2
For symmetrical sections Cw  
2 4
If = moment of inertia of one flange in lateral
direction, mm4
J = torsional constant for the section, mm4
1 3
J   bt
3 21
For the above expression, b is the long dimension and t is
the short dimension of any rectangular element of the
section and summation is for all the elements of that section.

When Lb > Lr
Mn = FcrSx ≤ Mp

Fcr = compression flange critical buckling stress

Cb 2 E J c  Lb 
Fcr  2
1  0.078  
 Lb  S x ho  rts 
 
 rts 

C b 2 E

Lb / rts 2
22
TYPES OF BEAM SECTIONS
Types According to Section Stability
Depending upon the stability, sectional shapes can be
classified as compact, non-compact and slender sections.
The details of this classification are explained in the
following paragraphs.

Compact section
A compact section is the one that is capable of developing
its full plastic moment capacity before any local buckling
occurs.
In order to qualify under this category, a member must
meet the following requirements (Table B4.1 of AISC
Specification):
23
 1. Web is continuously connected with the flange.
2. Flange local stability criterion is satisfied.
3. Web local buckling criterion is satisfied.
4. Lateral torsional buckling is absent.

Flange local stability criterion

Flange is locally stable when the width over thickness ratio
(=b/t) for the flange is lesser than the limiting slenderness
parameter for compact element (p).
The parameter  for flange may be calculated as bf / 2tf or
bf /tf depending on the whether half of the flange
undergoes buckling or the full flange acts as one element
for buckling, respectively.
  p 24
p for compact section
1. Unstiffened flanges of I-shaped rolled beams, channels,
tees and built-up doubly and single symmetric I-sections.

 p  0.38 E / Fy p = 10.8 for A-36 steel

2. Unstiffened legs of single angles.

 p  0.54 E / Fy p = 15.3 for A-36 steel

3. Stiffened flanges of HSS shapes

 p  1.12 E / Fy p = 31.8 for A-36 steel

25
Web local buckling criterion
Web is locally stable when the following condition is satisfied
  p where,  = h/tw
and assumed web depth for stability (h) is defined as under:
hw = twice the distance from the neutral axis to the inside
face of the compression flange less the fillet or corner
radius for rolled sections
p for compact section
1. For webs of doubly symmetric I-sections and channels:
 p  3.76 E / Fy p = 107 for A-36 steel
2. For webs of rectangular HSS ( = h / t):
 p  2.42 E / Fy p = 68.7 for A-36 steel
26
Lateral torsional buckling
The member is laterally stable
If Lb  Lp when, Cb = 1.0.
Non-compact section
A non-compact section is the one, which can develop
yielding at least on one of its outer edges before showing
local instability.
The width-thickness ratio of one or more elements exceeds
p, but  for all elements do not exceed r. The values of r
are given in Table 4.1.
Slender section
This type of section cannot develop yielding at any point
within the cross-section before it shows local instability.
The width over thickness ratio of any element exceeds r.
27
 Table 4.1. r For Non-Compact Sections
Sr. r for A36
Type of Element Expression For r
No. steel

i) Unstiffened rolled flanges 1.0 E / Fy 28.4

Unstiffened flanges of doubly Ek c to be

ii) and singly symmetric built-up 0.95
FL calculated
I-sections

iii) Flexure in legs of single angles 0.91 E / Fy 25.8

Stiffened webs purely in

iv) 5.70 E / Fy 162
flexure

28
In table 4.1
FL = 0.7Fy for minor axis bending, major axis bending
of slender web of built-up I-shaped member and
major axis bending of compact and non-compact
webs of built-up I-sections with Sxt / Sxc ≥ 0.7.
= Fy (Sxt / Sxc) ≥ 0.5 Fy for other cases.

4
kc  Kc is between 0.35 and 0.76.
h / tw

29
Flexural Member Performance using Section Classification

30
TYPES OF BEAMS
Depending on various aspects, the beams may be
categorized as under:
Position
i. Central beams.
ii. End beams.
End Conditions
i. Simple beams. The simple beams,
girders and trusses have an effective
length equal to the distance between
centres of gravity of the members
on which they rest.
ii. Cantilever beams
iii. Continuous beams
iv. Fixed ended beams
v. Propped cantilever beams 31
Fabrication
(a) Rolled steel sections
W-sections are most economic and widely
used shapes as beams. However, beams may
also be of S or M shapes. Angle and channel
sections are used for smaller beams.
Figure 4.5. Standard Notation
(b) Cold formed beams for Sizing of I- Section Beams

These are formed by bending high strength steel plates at

room temperature, in the form of shapes shown in Figure 4.6,
and are used for less loads and smaller spans.

Figure 4.6. Cold Formed Shapes 32

(c) Built-up sections
When the largest rolled steel section does not satisfy the
requirements of loads or span exceeds approximately 12m,
built-up sections are used.
Rolled steel sections with cover plates are used for spans
up to approximately 14 m.
Typical built-up sections are shown in Figure 4.7.

(d) Composite sections

When steel beams and some part of reinforced concrete
slab act together due to some type of shear connection
between the two, the resulting beam is said to have a
composite section, as shown in Figure 4.8.
33
a) Top Flange of Beam Embedded b) Top Flange of Beam Connected to
in RC Slab. RC Slab By Shear Connections
Figure 4.8. Different Types of Composite Beams

34
General Spans
Table 4.2. General Span Range for Beams

S. No. Type of Beam Span Range

a) Main beams  12 m
b) Secondary beams 4–6m
c) Steel joists 2–4m

Stiffeners
a) Stiffened beam: Stiffening plates are provided for
webs, flanges, or for stability as in built-up sections.
b) Unstiffened beam: Beams without any additional
stiffeners such as rolled steel sections alone are called
unstiffened beams.
35
 Stability of Section
The beams may consist of compact, non-compact and slender
sections depending on the braced length and the loading.
The flexural capacity and economy of the beam greatly
depends on the stability of the section used.

Lateral Support
In case of a beam, lateral support is generally required to be
provided for the compression flange to prevent lateral
torsional buckling.
However, a full support preventing the rotation of the
section is considered preferable.
The lateral support can be of the following types:
36
(a) Continuous lateral support
In this case, compression flange is braced laterally along
its entire span.

Figure 4.9. Types of Continuous Lateral Supports

For example, as shown in Figure 4.9, if compression flange is

encased in concrete slab or is connected by sufficient shear
connectors with the slab, a continuous bracing is provided.
Chances of local instability of compression flange and overall
lateral instability are eliminated. 37
 (b) Lateral support at intervals
This can be provided by cross beams, cross frames, ties, or
struts, framing in laterally.
The lateral system supporting the braces should itself be
adequately stiff and braced.

(b) Connection of Secondary Beam

(a) Plan View of a Building (Brace) to the Main Beam

Figure 4.10. Lateral Supports

at Intervals

(c) Unbraced Lengths for the Main Beam, AB

38
While providing lateral support at intervals, it is necessary to
make sure that the supporting structure itself does not buckle
simultaneously.
Figure 4.11(a) represents a case in which all the main beams can
buckle as a whole with unbraced length equal to their full span
even if cross beams are present.
However, cross bracing is provided in Figure 4.11(b), which
makes the lateral bracing effective.
The system of cross bracing provided in one of the bays will act
as sufficient lateral support for the beams of several bays.

39
 Cross Bracing

(a) Unbraced System (b) Braced System

Figure 4.11. Example of Cross Bracing

40
LATERAL BRACING FOR THE BEAM

41
42
FLEXURAL BEHAVIOR OF
COMPACT BEAMS
When beams have adequate lateral stability of the
compression flange, the only stability limit state that
might limit moment strength is local buckling in
compression flange and/or web plate elements making up
the cross-section.
For an internally compact section, even these types of
instabilities do not occur and the section may reach the
limit state of yielding throughout the depth of the cross
section.
The stress distribution on a typical wide-flange shape
subjected to increasing bending moment is shown in
Figure 4.12. 43
 F<Fy F=Fy F=Fy F=Fy Very Small and
Plastic Particularly Zero
Region Dimensions

Elastic
Region

Plastic
Region
a) M<My b) M=My c) M>My d) M=Mp
but M<Mp Fully Plastic Section

Figure 4.12. Flexural Stresses in a Beam

When the yield stress is reached at the extreme fibre, the

nominal moment strength Mn is referred to as the yield
moment My and is computed as

Mn = My = Sx Fy
44
 When the condition of part (d) is reached, every fibre has
a strain equal to or greater than y = Fy / Es and is in the
plastic range.
The nominal moment strength Mn in this case is,
therefore, referred to as the plastic moment (Mp), which is
computed as follows:
M p  Fy  ydA  Fy Z x
A

Where Zx, equal to ydA, is first moment of all the area

about an axis that equally divides the area (equal area axis)
and is called plastic section modulus.
It is observed that the ratio Mp /My is a property of the
cross-sectional shape and is independent of the material
properties.
45
It tells how much the moment at a section can be increased
beyond first yield moment.
This ratio is referred to as the Shape Factor denoted by the
letter f. Mp Zx
f  
My Sx
Once the plastic moment strength Mp has been reached, the
section can offer no additional resistance to rotation,
behaving as a fictitious hinge but with constant resistive
moment Mp, a condition known as a plastic hinge.
Plastic hinge acts just like a real hinge in producing
instability of the structure.
In general, any combination of three hinges, real or plastic,
in a span will result in an unstable condition known as a
collapse mechanism. 46
 Mp = FyZx

Mr = 0.7FySx
Nominal Moment Strength (Mn)

Mp
Mn = FcrSx
My Fcr = (Cbπ2E)/(Lb /rts)2

Mr

Mn = Mp
Inelastic
Behaviour
Elastic Behavior
Lp Lr

Laterally Unbraced Length (Lb) 47

Further, the nominal flexural strength, Mn, of a beam is the
lowest value obtained for the following limit states:
a) yielding,
b) lateral-torsional buckling,
c) flange local buckling, and
d) web local buckling.
LTB BUCKLING MODIFICATION
FACTOR (Cb)
According to AISC, Cb is the Lateral-Torsional Buckling
Modification Factor for non-uniform moment diagrams
when both ends of the unsupported segment are braced.
The factor Cb accounts for the moment gradient or the
shape of the bending moment diagram. 48
Effect of the maximum moment present throughout the
beam segment is much more severe and Cb = 1.0 for this
case. Greater values of Cb indicate more flexural strength.
If bending moment is lesser within the span than the ends,
Cb can be taken greater than one.
Similarly, in addition to above, if reverse curvature is
present, the situation becomes still less severe and value of
Cb may further be increased.

Value of Cb
Cb = 1.0 for cantilevers or overhangs with unbraced
free ends.
49
 12.5 M max
Cb 
2.5 M max 3M A  4 M B 3MC

where M is the absolute value of a moment in the

unbraced beam segment defined as follows:

Mmax = the maximum absolute moment in the unbraced

beam segment
MA = absolute moment at the quarter point of the
unbraced beam segment
MB = absolute moment at the centreline of the unbraced
beam segment
MC = absolute moment at the three-quarter point of the
unbraced beam segment
50
Unbraced Length And Cb For Cantilever Beams
If no lateral brace is provided in the cantilever length.
Lb = actual length and Cb = 1.0.
If lateral brace is provided at free end.
Lb = actual length and Cb is calculated by the formula.
Note:
While using the beam selection curves of Reference-1
(Page 193-279), Cb factor may be combined with Lb
and Lb /Cb value may be used as modified unbraced
values

51
FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF BEAMS
For a safe beam, the applied moment (service moment Ma
in ASD and factored moment Mu in LRFD) must be lesser
than or equal to the design strength of the beam.
Mu  bMn b = 0.90 (LRFD)
Ma  Mn / b b = 1.67 (ASD)
where Mn = nominal flexural strength as determined by
the limit state of yielding, lateral torsional buckling, or
local buckling.
To graphically show the effect of a value of Cb greater than
one on the design flexural strength of a beam, the curve of
Figure 4.13 is multiplied with Cb = 1.0 and is reproduced
in Figure 4.14 as Curve-1. 52
The flexural capacity is increased by multiplying with
Cb (greater than one) and is presented as Curve-2.
However, the flexural capacity of any section cannot be
greater than the full plastic moment capacity. Applying
this condition, Curve-2 is changed into the applicable
curve shown by solid line in the figure.
A new value of limiting unbraced length denoted by Lm
is to be defined in place of Lp as follows:
Lm = limiting unbraced length for full plastic bending
capacity when Cb>1.0 which is between the
lengths Lp and Lr.

53
 Design Curve
For Cb >1.0
Nominal Flexural Strength (Mn)

CbMp Curve-2 Obtained By Multiplying

Curve-1 With Cb >1.0
Mp
Curve-1
For Cb =1.0

CbMr
Mr

Lp Lm Lr
Laterally Unbraced Length (Lb)
54
This length Lm may be calculated by using the following
expression:
Lm  L p 
CM b p  M p Lr  L p 
Cb M p  M r 

 Lp 
CM b p Mp
Cb  BF
M p  Cb 1 
 Lp     Lr
BF  Cb 
BF = slope of moment capacity versus unbraced length
for inelastic lateral torsional buckling.
M p  Mr
BF 
Lr  L p
When Cb = 1.0, Lm = Lp 55
Design moment capacity (Mn) is determined for various
cases of unbraced lengths as follows:
Case I: Compact Sections, Cb  1.0, Lb  Lm
Mn = Mp = Zx Fy / 106 (kN – m)
Case II: Compact Sections, Cb  1.0, Lm < Lb  Lr
  Lb  L p 
M n  Cb  M p  ( M p  M r )   M p , (kN  m)
  L  L 
 r p 

Mn = Cb [Mp – BF(Lb – Lp)]  Mp (kN – m)

Case III: Compact Sections, Cb  1.0, Lb > Lr
For doubly symmetric I-shaped and channel section
members:
Mn = CbFcrSx  Mp (kN-m) 56
 2
Where Cb E 2
J c  Lb  Cb 2 E
Fcr  2
1  0.078    2
 Lb  S x ho  rts   Lb 
   r 
 rts   ts 
The variables rts and others are as defined earlier. The square
root term may conservative be taken equal to 1.0.
DESIGN SHEAR STRENGTH
In case of beams, the shear stress distribution creates
negligibly less stresses in the flanges and only web resists
most of the applied shear.
This fact is schematically shown in Figure 4.15.
Hence, the area resisting shear is equal to area of web as
under:
Aw = d  tw 57
 Figure 4.15. Shear Stress Distribution in An I-Section Beam.

The stable web of a beam may reach its limit by web

yielding, in which yielding in shear takes place when the
applied shear stress () becomes equal to shear yield stress
(y).
For ductile materials, shear yield stress is approximately
equal to 60 percent of the tension yield stress (0.6 Fy).
58
The factor 0.6 is not a factor of safety but is a factor to
approximately change principal tensile stress into shear
stress at maximum shear stress plane or vice versa.
The design shear strength of webs is  Vn with  = 0.90
(LRFD) and the allowable shear strength is Vn / v with
v = 1.67 (ASD).
For webs of rolled I-shaped members:
Vn = 0.6FyAwCv
Web Yielding:
h
For  2.24 E / Fyw
tw
(= 63.4 for A36 steel) : Cv = 1.0

59
Note:
Vu
1) Average applied shear stress, fv = (LRFD)
dt w
2) Beam is safe in shear when Vu  Vn (LRFD)

DEFLECTIONS
Deflection check is a serviceability limit state check and
hence, it is applied using the service loads and not the
factored loads.
Further, for steel structures, this check is usually applied
only using the service live load and the deflection due to
dead loads are not considered.
60
The reason for not including the dead load in the
calculation of deflections is that the structure is given a
negative camber during construction to balance the dead
load deflections.
There are several justifications for limiting service live
load deflections, some of which are as under:

1. The deflections produced should not be visible to the

people. It is important to remember that some
deflection always occur which can be measured by
instruments. Common people may consider a structure
that is completely safe from strength point of view
unsafe and dangerous if the deflections are larger.
61
2. The appearance of structures may be damaged by
excessive deflections such as the plaster may crack
and other surface finishes may be disturbed.
3. Excessive deflections in a member may damage
other members attached to it. For example,
deflections produced in a main beam may cause high
extra stresses in the secondary beams and roofing
resting on it.
4. In case the structure is supporting any type of
machinery, the deflection of one part may disturb the
alignment of the machinery shafts.
5. Sometimes, it may be required that different parts of
structure deflect by same amount when symmetric
loads are applied on them.
62