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Ethical (or moral) dilemmas are situations in

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Yet, although moral dilemmas comprise the most
difficult occasions for moral reasoning, they
constitute a relatively small percentage of moral
choices, that is, decisions involving moral values.
The vast majority of moral choices are clear-cut,
although we sometimes fail to act responsibly
because of negligence and weakness of will.

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Resolving Ethical Dilemmas

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Reasonable solutions to ethical dilemmas are
clear, informed, and well-reasoned.
Clear refers to moral clarity-clarity about which
moral values are at stake and how they pertain to
the situation.
It also refers to conceptual clarity-precision in
using the key concepts (ideas) applicable in the
situation.

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Informed means knowing and appreciating the
implications of morally-relevant facts. In addition, it
means being aware of alternative courses of action
and what they entail.
Well-reasoned means that good judgment is
exercised in integrating the relevant moral values
and facts to arrive at a morally desirable solution.

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These characteristics of reasonable solutions also
enter as steps in resolving ethical dilemmas. By
"steps" we do not mean single-file movements,
but instead activities that are carried out jointly
and in repeating patterns.

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Thus, a preliminary survey of the applicable
moral values and relevant facts might be
followed by conceptual clarification and
additional fact gathering, which in turn evince a
more nuanced understanding of the applicable
values and the implications of the relevant facts.

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Example
A chemical engineer working in the environmental
division of a computer manufacturing firm learns that her
company might be discharging unlawful amounts of lead
and arsenic into the city sewer. The city processes the
sludge into a fertilizer used by local farmers. To ensure
the safety of both the discharge and the fertilizer, the city
imposes restrictive laws on the discharge of lead and
arsenic.

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Preliminary investigations convince the engineer
that the company should implement stronger
pollution controls, and Codes of Ethics but her
supervisor tells her the cost of doing so is prohibitive
and that technically the company is in compliance
with the law. She is also scheduled to appear before
town officials to testify in the matter. What should she
do?

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1. Moral clarity: Identify the relevant moral
values.
The most basic step in confronting ethical
dilemmas is to become aware of them! This
means identifying the moral values and reasons
applicable in the situation, and bearing them in
mind as further investigations are made.

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These values and reasons might be obligations,
rights, goods, ideals (which might be desirable
but not mandatory), or other moral
considerations.

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2. Conceptual clarity: Be clear about key
concepts.
Professionalism requires being a faithful agent of
one's employer, but does that mean doing what one's
supervisor directs or doing what is good for the
corporation in the long run? These might be different
things, in particular when one's supervisor is
adopting a short-term view that could harm the long-
term interests of the corporation.

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Again, what does it mean to "hold paramount the safety, health,
and welfare of the public" in the case at hand? Does it pertain
to all threats to public health, or just serious threats, and what
is a "serious" threat? Again, does being "objective and truthful"
simply mean never lying (intentionally stating a falsehood), or
does it mean revealing all pertinent facts (withholding nothing
important) and doing so in a way that gives no preference to
the interests of one's employer over the needs of the public to
be informed of hazards?

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3. Informed about the facts: Obtain relevant
information. This means gathering information
that is pertinent in light of the applicable moral
values. Sometimes the primary difficulty in
resolving moral dilemmas is uncertainty about
the facts, rather than conflicting values.

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Certainly in the case at hand, the chemical engineer
needs to check and recheck her findings, perhaps asking
colleagues for their perspectives. Her corporation seems
to be violating the law, but is it actually doing so? We, like
the engineer, need to know more about the possible harm
caused by the minute quantities of lead and arsenic over
time. How serious is it, and how likely to cause harm?

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4. Informed about the options: Consider all (realistic)
options. Initially, ethical dilemmas seem to force us into a
two-way choice:
Do this or do that. Either bow to a supervisor's orders or
blow the whistle to the town authorities. A closer look
often reveals additional options. (Sometimes writing
down the main options and sub options as a matrix or
decision tree ensures that all options are considered.)

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Unless an emergency develops, these and other
steps should be attempted before informing
authorities outside the corporation.

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5. Well-reasoned: Make a reasonable decision. Arrive at a
carefully reasoned judgment by weighing all the relevant
moral reasons and facts. This is not a mechanical process
that a computer or algorithm might do for us. Instead, it is
a deliberation aimed at integrating all the relevant
reasons, facts, and values, in a morally reasonable
manner.

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Right-Wrong or Better-Worse?
We might divide ethical dilemmas into two broad
categories.
1. On the one hand, many dilemmas have
solutions that are either right or wrong. "Right"
means that one course of action is obligatory, and
failing to do that action is unethical (immoral).

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In most instances a code of ethics specifies what
is clearly required:
Obey the law and heed engineering standards,
do not offer or accept bribes, speak and write
truthfully, maintain confidentiality, and so forth.

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2. On the other hand, some dilemmas have two
or more reasonable solutions, no one of which
is mandatory, but one of which should be
chosen. These solutions might be better or
worse than others in some respects but not
necessarily in all respects.

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