UNDERSTANDING FIXED-INCOME RISK AND

RETURN: CHAPTER 4
• In the Text Book Chapter 1 to 5 and Chapter 7 are to be covered for Fixed
Income Curriculum.

• For examination purpose also cover these chapters thoroughly

• Rest of the chapters are to be treated as additional readings

TABLE OF CONTENTS
01 INTRODUCTION
02 SOURCES OF RETURN
03 INTEREST RATE RISK ON FIXED-RATE BONDS
04 INTEREST RATE RISK AND THE INVESTMENT HORIZON
05 CREDIT AND LIQUIDITY RISK
06 SUMMARY

2
 1. INTRODUCTION
• Any analysis of fixed-rate securities starts with an
understanding of their risk and return characteristics.
• The yield-to-maturity, or internal rate of return on future
cash flows, is of particular focus.
• The return on a fixed-rate bond is affected by many factors,
such as credit risk (potential default on payments) and
interest rate risk (varying coupon reinvestment rate and
sale price).

3
 2. SOURCES OF RETURN
A fixed-rate bond has three sources of return:
Receipt of the promised coupon and principal payments
1. on the scheduled dates
Reinvestment of coupon payments
2.
Potential capital gains or losses on the sale of the bond
3. prior to maturity

• the internal rate of return between the

A horizon yield total return for the investment horizon
and the purchase price of the bond

• the purchase price plus (minus) the

amortized amount of the discount
A carrying value (premium) if the bond is purchased at a
price below (above) par value
4
 SOURCES OF RETURN
Example: An investor purchases a 10-year, 8% annual coupon bond at
$85.503075 per $100 of par value and holds it to maturity. The bond’s
yield to maturity is 10.40%. Show the sources of return:
Bondholder receives 1) Coupon payments 10 × $8 = $80; 2) Par value at
maturity $100; 3) Reinvestment income from coupons (at 10.40%).
8 × 1.1040 9 + 8 × 1.1040 8 + 8 × 1.1040 7 + 8 × 1.1040 6 +ሾ8 ×

5
 SOURCES OF RETURN
Example: An investor purchases a 10-year, 8% annual coupon bond at
$85.503075 and sells it in four years. The bond’s yield-to-maturity goes
up from 10.40% to 11.40% straight after the purchase. Show the sources
of return:
Bondholder receives 1) Coupon payments 4 × $8 = $32; 2) Sale price (at
11.40% YTM) $85.780408; 3) Reinvestment income from coupons (at
11.40%).

8 × 1.1140 3 + 8 × 1.1140 2 + 8 × 1.1140 1 + 8 = $𝟑𝟕. 𝟖𝟗𝟗𝟕𝟐𝟒

$37.899724 = Future value of the reinvested coupons

$5.899724 = Interest on reinvested coupons ($37.899724 – $32)
$123.680132 = Total return ($37.899724 + $85.780408)
1Τ
123.680132 4
Realized rate of return: 𝑟 = − 1 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟔𝟕 or 𝟗. 𝟔𝟕%.
85.503075

6
 INVESTMENT HORIZON AND
INTEREST RATE RISK

A few important points about fixed-rate bonds:

• The investment horizon is at the heart of understanding
interest rate risk and return.

Coupon
reinvestment
There are two risk
offsetting types of
interest rate risk
Market price
risk

7
COUPON REINVESTMENT RISK AND
MARKET PRICE RISK
The future value of reinvested coupon payments
(and in a portfolio, the principal on bonds that
mature before the horizon date) increases when
interest rates go up and decreases when rates go
down.

The sale price on a bond that matures after the

horizon date (and thus needs to be sold) decreases
when interest rates go up and increases when rates
go down.

Coupon reinvestment risk matters more when the

investor has a long-term horizon relative to the time-
to-maturity of the bond.

8
3. INTEREST RATE RISK ON FIXED-RATE BONDS
The duration of a bond measures the sensitivity of the
bond’s full price (including accrued interest) to changes in
the bond’s yield-to-maturity or, more generally, to changes in
benchmark interest rates.

There are several types of bond duration. In general, these

can be divided into yield duration and curve duration.
Curve duration is the
Yield duration is the sensitivity sensitivity of the bond price (or
of the bond price with respect more generally, the market
to the bond’s own yield-to- value of a financial asset or
maturity. liability) with respect to a
benchmark yield curve.

9
 YIELD DURATION STATISTICS
Yield duration • Macaulay duration
statistics used in • Modified duration
fixed-income • Money duration
analysis include • Price value of a basis point (PVBP)

The Macaulay duration (D) formula (for the period)

𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
(1−𝑇)×PMT (2−𝑇)×PMT (𝑁−𝑇)×(PMT+FV)
+ +⋯+
(1+𝑟)1−𝑡/𝑇 (1+𝑟)2−𝑡/𝑇 (1+𝑟)𝑁−𝑡/𝑇
𝐷= PMT PMT PMT+FV
+ +⋯+
(1+𝑟)1−𝑡/𝑇 (1+𝑟)2−𝑡/𝑇 (1+𝑟)𝑁−𝑡/𝑇

where t is the number of days from the last coupon payment to the
settlement date; T is the number of days in the coupon period; PMT is
the coupon payment per period; FV is par value; r is YTM/discount rate
per period; and N is the number of coupon periods to maturity.

10
 MACAULAY DURATION
Another way to calculate Macaulay duration is by using the
following formula:

1+𝑟 1+𝑟+ 𝑁× 𝑐−𝑟 𝑡

𝐷= − 𝑁
−
𝑟 𝑐× 1+𝑟 −1 +𝑟 𝑇

where c is the coupon rate per period.

• The Macaulay duration is usually expressed in annual

terms. To convert it to an annual duration, divide the
Macaulay duration by the number of coupon payment
periods per year.

11
 CALCULATING THE MACAULAY DURATION
Example: A 6% annual payment bond matures on 14 February 2022
and is purchased for settlement on 11 April 2014. The YTM is 4%.
Calculate the bond’s Macaulay duration (actual/actual convention):
Period Time to Receipt CF (cash PV of CF Time-Weighted PV
flow) of CF
1 309/365 = 0.8466 6 6/(1 + 0.04)^0.8466 = 0.8466 × 5.80 = 4.91
5.80
2 1.8466 6 5.58 10.31
3 2.8466 6 5.37 15.28
4 3.8466 6 5.16 19.85
5 4.8466 6 4.96 24.05
6 5.8466 106 84.28 492.74
111.15 567.13
D = 567.13/111.15 = 5.1 years
12
 CALCULATING THE MACAULAY DURATION
WITH THE ALTERNATIVE FORMULA

Using the alternative formula, the calculation is as

follows:

1 + 0.04 1 + 0.04 + 6 × 0.06 − 0.04 56

𝐷= − 6
−
0.04 0.06 × 1 + 0.04 − 1 + 0.04 365

= 𝟓. 𝟏𝟎 𝐲𝐞𝐚𝐫𝐬.

13
 MODIFIED DURATION

Modified duration (MD) is a

Modified duration provides a
direct measure of the interest
linear estimate of the
rate sensitivity of a bond. It
percentage price change for a
assumes that yield changes do
bond given a change in its
not change the expected cash
yield-to-maturity.
flows.

𝐷
MD = %∆PV𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 ≈ −MD × ∆Yield(%)
1+𝑟
where r is the yield per period.

- Note: MD is expressed in annual terms.

- To get the % change in bond price, the % change must be
multiplied by the original bond price.

14
 APPROXIMATE MODIFIED DURATION
An alternative approach is to estimate the approximate modified
duration (AMD) directly:

PV− − (PV+ )
AMD =
2 × (∆Yield) × (PV0 )

where PV0 is the price of the bond at the current yield, PV+ is the price of
the bond if the yield increases (by ΔYield), and PV– is the price of the
bond if the yield decreases (by ΔYield).

Example: Consider a 6% semiannual coupon paying bond with 4 years

to maturity currently priced at par (YTM = 6%).
If the YTM increases/decreases by annualized 20 bps, the price
raises/decreases to 99.301 and 100.705, respectively:

100.705 −(99.301)
AMD = = 𝟑. 𝟓𝟏 𝐲𝐞𝐚𝐫𝐬.
2×(0.002)×(100)

15
 APPROXIMATE MODIFIED DURATION

Price

The approximate
modified duration is a
linear approximation of
the price/yield curve. The
difference is due to the
convexity of the bond.

Tangent line

Yield

16
 APPROXIMATE MACAULAY DURATION

The approximate Macaulay duration (AD) is calculated

from the approximate modified duration (AMD).

AD = AMD × (1 + 𝑟)

In the example from slide 15:

AD = 3.51 × 1 + 0.03 = 𝟑. 𝟔𝟏𝟓 𝐲𝐞𝐚𝐫𝐬

where
r = 3% = $6 (annual coupon payment per $100)/2.

17
 EFFECTIVE DURATION
• Another approach to assess the interest rate risk of a bond
is to estimate the percentage change in price given a
change in a benchmark yield curve—for example, the
government par curve.
• This estimate, which is very similar to the formula for
approximate modified duration, is called the “effective
duration”:
PV− − (PV+ )
EffDur =
2 × (∆Curve) × (PV0 )

where ΔCurve is a parallel shift in the benchmark curve.

18
WHEN TO USE EFFECTIVE DURATION

A callable/putable
bond does not have
a well-defined
Effective duration is internal rate of return
essential to the (yield-to-maturity).
measurement of the Therefore, yield
interest rate risk of a duration statistics,
complex bond, such such as modified and
as a bond with an Macaulay durations,
embedded option. do not apply.
Effective duration is
the appropriate
duration measure.

19
 KEY RATE DURATION

A key rate duration (or

partial duration) is a
measure of a bond’s
sensitivity to a change in In contrast to effective duration,
the benchmark yield key rate durations help identify
curve at a specific “shaping risk” for a bond—that is,
maturity segment. a bond’s sensitivity to changes in
the shape of the benchmark yield
curve (e.g., the yield curve
becoming steeper or flatter).

20
 PROPERTIES OF BOND DURATION

Bond duration is the basic measure of interest rate risk on a

fixed-rate bond.

• Coupon rate or payment per

period
The duration for a • Yield-to-maturity per period
fixed-rate bond is • Time-to-maturity (as of the
a function of beginning of the period)
these input • Fraction of the period that has
variables. gone by
• Presence and nature of
embedded options

21
 COUPON RATE AND YIELD-TO-MATURITY
RELATION TO MACAULAY DURATION

The coupon rate is inversely The yield-to-maturity is

related to the Macaulay inversely related to the
duration. Macaulay duration.

• A lower-coupon bond has a • A higher yield-to-maturity

higher duration and more reduces the weighted average
interest rate risk than a of the time to receipt of cash
higher-coupon bond. flow.

• The Macaulay duration of a

zero-coupon bond is equal to
its time-to-maturity.

22
 TIME-TO-MATURITY AND FRACTION OF THE
PERIOD RELATION TO MACAULAY DURATION

From the equation on slide

Time-to-maturity is typically 11, it is clear that the
directly related to the fraction of the period that
Macaulay duration. has gone by (t/T) is
inversely related to the
Macaulay duration.
• This pattern always holds for • Macaulay duration
bonds trading at par value or decreases smoothly as t
at a premium above par. goes from t = 0 to t = T and
• The exception is deep- then jumps upward after the
discount bonds, where the coupon is paid.
relationship does not hold for
a long time-to-maturity.

23
 BONDS WITH EMBEDDED OPTIONS

• Bonds with embedded options (e.g., callable, putable)

require the use of effective duration because Macaulay and
modified yield duration statistics are not relevant.

The yield-to-maturity for callable and putable bonds is not

well defined because future cash flows are uncertain.

• When benchmark yields are high (low), the effective

durations of the callable (putable) and non-callable (non-
putable) bonds are very similar. There is a large
discrepancy in durations for callable (putable) and non-
callable (non-putable) bonds when yields are low (high).
• In summary, the presence of an embedded option reduces
the sensitivity of the bond price to changes in the
benchmark yield curve (lower duration), assuming no
change in credit risk.

24
 CALCULATING THE DURATION OF A
BOND PORTFOLIO
Bonds are typically held in a portfolio.

The weighted This method is

average of time to the theoretically
receipt of the correct approach,
aggregate cash but it is difficult to
There are two flows use in practice.
ways to
calculate the
duration of a The weighted
This method is
bond portfolio. commonly used
average of the
by fixed-income
individual bond
portfolio
durations that
managers, but it
comprise the
has its own
portfolio
limitations.

25
 MONEY DURATION
The money duration of a bond is a measure of the price
change in units of the currency in which the bond is
denominated.
- The money duration can be stated per 100 of par value or in
terms of the actual position size of the bond in the portfolio.

Money duration (MoneyDur) is calculated as follows:

MoneyDur = AMD × PV𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙

The estimated change in the bond price in currency units is

calculated by the following:
∆PV𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 ≈ −MonD × ∆Yield
26
 MONEY DURATION CALCULATION
Example: Consider a 6% semiannual coupon bond with a
current price of HKD100.940423 per HKD100 of par value
and an annual modified duration of 6.1268 years. Suppose a
life insurance company has a position in the bond of HKD100
million, and the market value of the investment is
HKD100,940,423. Calculate the money duration and change
in value of position as a result of a 100 bps decline in YTM.
• Money duration (MoneyDur) is calculated as
MoneyDur = 6.1268 × HKD100,940,423 = 𝐇𝐊𝐃𝟔𝟏𝟖, 𝟒𝟒𝟏, 𝟕𝟖𝟓.

• The estimated change in the bond price in HKD is

∆PV𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 ≈ − HKD618,441,785 × 0.01 = − 𝐇𝐊𝐃𝟔, 𝟏𝟖𝟒, 𝟒𝟏𝟖.

27
 PRICE VALUE OF A BASIS POINT (PVBP)
• The price value of a basis point (PVBP) is an estimate of
the change in the full price given a 1 bp change in the
yield-to-maturity.

The PVBP is calculated as follows:

(PV− ) − (PV+ )
PVBP =
2

Example: Assume a T-note is priced at 99.561006 and

yields 0.723368%. An increase and decrease in 1 bp results
in the price changing to 99.512707 and 99.609333,
respectively. Calculate the PVBP:
99.609333−99.512707
PVBP = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟖𝟑𝟏.
2
28
 CONVEXITY STATISTIC
• The true relationship between the bond price and the yield-
to-maturity is the curved (convex) line, which shows the
actual bond price given its market discount rate.

The linear approximation of estimated price change

offered by duration is good for small yield-to-maturity
changes. But for larger changes, the difference becomes
significant.

• The convexity statistic for the bond is used to improve

the estimate of the percentage price change provided by
modified duration alone. There are various ways to
estimate convexity:
𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙
1
%∆PV ≈ −AMD × ∆Yield + × Conv × (∆Yield)2
2

29
 CALCULATING A BOND’S CONVEXITY
Example: A 6% annual payment bond matures on 14 February 2022
and is purchased for settlement on 11 April 2014. The YTM is 4%.
Calculate the bond’s convexity (actual/actual convention):

Period Time to CF PV of CF t^2+t (t^2+t) × PV of CF

Receipt
1 0.8466 6 5.80 1.56 9.07
2 1.8466 6 5.58 5.26 29.34
3 2.8466 6 5.37 10.95 58.76
4 3.8466 6 5.16 18.64 96.19
5 4.8466 6 4.96 28.34 140.58
6 5.8466 106 84.28 40.03 3373.63
111.15 3707.57
Conv = 1/(1 + 0.04)^2 × 3707.57/111.15 = 30.84

30
 APPROXIMATE, MONEY, AND
EFFECTIVE CONVEXITY
Like modified duration, convexity can be accurately approximated.
• The approximate convexity is calculated by the following:

(PV− ) + (PV+ ) − 2 × PV0

AConv =
(∆Yield)2 × PV0

•The money convexity of the bond is the annual convexity

multiplied by the full price.
•The effective convexity of a bond is a curve convexity statistic
that measures the secondary effect of a change in a benchmark
yield curve.

(PV− )+(PV+ ) − 2× PV0

EffConv =
(∆Curve)2 × PV0

31
 CALCULATING APPROXIMATE CONVEXITY
Example: Consider a 6% semiannual coupon paying bond
with 4 years to maturity that is currently priced at par (YTM =
6%) and has an AMD of 3.51 years. If the YTM increases/
decreases by 20 bps, the price raises/decreases to 99.301
and 100.705, respectively. Calculate AConv and the effect of
a 50 bps change in yield on the bond price:
100.705+99.301− 2×100
AConv = = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟖𝟏
(0.002)2 ×100

1
%∆PV𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 ≈ −3.51 × 0.005 + × 14.81 × 0.005 2 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟕%,
2
including a 0.0185% convexity adjustment.

32
 EFFECTS OF CONVEXITY ON BONDS

For the same decrease in yield-to-maturity, the more convex

bond appreciates more in price. And for the same increase in
yield-to-maturity, the more convex bond depreciates less in price.

The conclusion is that the more convex bond outperforms the

less convex bond in both bull (rising price) and bear (falling price)
markets.
The negative convexity is
Option-free bonds always have
present in callable bonds but not
positive convexity.
in putable bonds.

33
 PRICE–YIELD RELATIONSHIP
FOR A CALLABLE BOND

Option-free bond

Price

Area of negative
convexity
Callable bond

r* Yield

34
 4. INTEREST RATE RISK AND
THE INVESTMENT HORIZON
• An important aspect in understanding the interest rate risk and
return characteristics of an investment in a fixed-rate bond is the
time horizon.

• Bond duration is the primary measure of risk arising from a

change in the yield-to-maturity; convexity is the secondary risk
measure.

• The common assumption in interest rate risk analysis is a

parallel shift in the yield curve. In reality, the shape of the yield
curve changes based on factors affecting the supply and
demand of shorter-term versus longer-term securities.

35
 YIELD VOLATILITY

• The term structure of yield volatility is the relationship

between the volatility of bond yields-to-maturity and times-
to-maturity.

The first factor is

The impact per
The importance duration or the
basis point
of yield volatility combination of
change in the
in measuring duration and
yield-to-maturity
convexity.
interest rate
risk is that bond
price changes The number of
The second
are products of basis points in
factor is the yield
two factors. the yield-to-
volatility.
maturity change

36
GENERAL RELATIONSHIPS AMONG INTEREST RATE
RISK, THE MACAULAY DURATION, AND THE
INVESTMENT HORIZON

> = <
When the
When the investment When the investment horizon
horizon is greater investment is less than the
than the Macaulay horizon is equal to Macaulay duration
duration of a bond, the Macaulay of a bond, market
coupon reinvestment duration of a price risk
risk dominates market bond, coupon dominates coupon
price risk. The reinvestment risk reinvestment risk.
investor’s risk is to offsets market The investor’s risk
lower interest rates. price risk. is to higher interest
rates.

• The difference between the Macaulay duration of a bond and the

investment horizon is called the “duration gap.”

37
 5. CREDIT AND LIQUIDITY RISK
• The yield-to-maturity on a corporate bond is composed of a
government benchmark yield and a spread over that
benchmark. A change in the bond’s yield-to-maturity can
originate in either component or a combination of the two.

A change in the benchmark yield can arise from a change in

either the expected inflation rate or the expected real rate of
interest.

• The inflation duration would indicate the change in the bond

price if expected inflation were to change by a certain amount.
• The real rate duration would indicate the bond price change if
the real rate were to go up or down.

38
 IMPACT OF CHANGES IN YIELD-TO-MATURITY

A change in the spread can arise from a change in the credit

risk of the issuer or in the liquidity of the bond.

• For a bond with a given duration and convexity, the impact

of changes in yield-to-maturity on the bond’s price will
be the same regardless of the source of the yield-to-
maturity change.
• The problem for a fixed-income analyst is that it is rare for
the changes in the components of the overall yield-to-
maturity to occur in isolation.

39
 6. SUMMARY
Sources of a bond’s return
• The three sources of return on a fixed-rate bond purchased
at par value are (1) receipt of the promised coupon and
principal payments on the scheduled dates, (2) reinvestment
of coupon payments, and (3) potential capital gains, as well
as losses, on the sale of the bond prior to maturity.
• For a bond purchased at a discount or premium, the rate of
return also includes the effect of the price being “pulled to
par” as maturity nears, assuming no default.

Macaulay, modified, and effective durations

• Macaulay duration is the weighted average of the time to
receipt of coupon interest and principal payments, in which
the weights are the shares of the full price corresponding to
each payment. This statistic is annualized by dividing by the
periodicity.

40
 SUMMARY
Macaulay, modified, and effective durations (continued)
• Modified duration provides a linear estimate of the
percentage price change for a bond given a change in its
yield-to-maturity.
• Approximate modified duration approaches modified
duration as the change in the yield-to-maturity approaches
zero.
• Effective duration is a curve duration statistic that
measures interest rate risk assuming a parallel shift in the
benchmark yield curve.

41
 SUMMARY
Effective duration is the most appropriate measure of interest
rate risk for bonds with embedded options

• Bonds with an embedded option do not have a meaningful

internal rate of return because future cash flows are
contingent on interest rates. Therefore, effective duration,
not modified duration, is the appropriate interest rate risk
measure.

42
 SUMMARY

Key rate duration

• Key rate duration is a measure of a bond’s sensitivity to a

change in the benchmark yield curve at specific maturity
segments. Key rate durations can be used to measure a
bond’s sensitivity to changes in the shape of the yield curve.

43
 SUMMARY
A bond’s maturity, coupon, embedded options, and yield
level affect its interest rate risk

• Macaulay and modified durations are inversely related to

the coupon rate and the yield-to-maturity.
• Time-to-maturity and durations are usually positively
related. The exception is on long-term, low-coupon bonds,
on which it is possible to have a lower duration than on an
otherwise comparable shorter-term bond.

44
 SUMMARY
A bond’s embedded options affect its interest rate risk

• The presence of an embedded call/put option reduces a

bond’s effective duration compared with that of an otherwise
comparable non-callable/non-putable bond.

45
 SUMMARY
The duration of a portfolio and its limitations

• The duration of a bond portfolio can be calculated in two

ways: (1) the weighted average of the time to receipt of
aggregate cash flows and (2) the weighted average of the
durations of individual bonds that compose the portfolio.
• The first method cannot be used for bonds with embedded
options or for floating-rate notes.
• The second method is simpler to use and quite accurate
when the yield curve is relatively flat. Its main limitation is that
it assumes a parallel shift in the yield curve in that the yields
on all bonds in the portfolio change by the same amount.

46
 SUMMARY

Money duration of a bond and price value of a basis point

• Money duration is a measure of the price change in terms of

units of the currency in which the bond is denominated.
• The price value of a basis point (PVBP) is an estimate of
the change in the full price of a bond given a 1 bp change in
the yield-to-maturity.

47
 SUMMARY
Approximate convexity and effective convexity

• Convexity is the secondary, or second-order, effect on a

bond’s percentage price change given a change in the yield-
to-maturity. It indicates the change in the modified duration as
the yield-to-maturity changes.
• Effective convexity is the second-order effect on a bond price
given a change in the benchmark yield curve.

48
 SUMMARY

Price change of a bond for a specified change in yield

• The change in a bond price is the product of (1) the impact

per basis point change in the yield-to-maturity and (2) the
number of basis points in the yield change.

Term structure of yield volatility and the interest rate risk of

a bond
• For a particular assumption about yield volatility, the
Macaulay duration indicates the investment horizon for which
coupon reinvestment risk and market price risk offset each
other. The assumption is a one-time parallel shift to the yield
curve in which the yield-to-maturity and coupon reinvestment
rates change by the same amount in the same direction.

49
 SUMMARY

Relationships among a bond’s holding period return,

duration, and investment horizon

• When the investment horizon is greater than the Macaulay

duration of the bond, coupon reinvestment risk dominates
price risk.
• When the investment horizon is equal to the Macaulay
duration of the bond, coupon reinvestment risk offsets price
risk.
• When the investment horizon is less than the Macaulay
duration of the bond, price risk dominates coupon
reinvestment risk.

50
 SUMMARY
Changes in credit spread and liquidity affect yield-to-
maturity; duration and convexity can estimate the effects

• For a traditional (option-free) fixed-rate bond, the same

duration and convexity statistics apply if a change occurs in
the benchmark yield or a change occurs in the spread. The
change in the spread can result from a change in credit risk
or liquidity risk.

51