University of Gondar

Institute of Technology

Department Of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Introduction to Electrical Machines

ECEg3131
Lecture on: Electromagnetic principles

By: Getahun A.
Email: [email protected]
12/1/2019 1
 CHAPTER 1. MAGNETICS
 Magnetism is a phenomenon by which a material exerts either
attractive or repulsive force on another.
 Basic source of magnetic force is movement of electrically charged
particles. Thus magnetic behavior of a material can be traced to the
structure of atoms.
 Electrons in atoms have a planetary motion in that they go around the
nucleus. This Orbital motion and its own spin cause separate
magnetic moments, which contribute to the magnetic behavior of
materials.
 The manner in which a material responds depend much on its atomic
structure, and determines whether a material will be strongly or
weakly magnetic.
 Electromagnetism is at the heart of the creation of electric energy,
radio, TV, computer engineering and information technology
12/1/2019 2
 Cont…
• Magnetic materials which will retain the magnetic property
at all times permanently is called permanent magnet. This
type of magnets are manufactured by nickel, iron, cobalt.
• To make a permanent magnet a coil is wound over a
magnetic material and DC supply is passed through the coil.
Magnetic Field
• The space around a magnet in which the influence of the magnet can
be detected is called the magnetic field.
• A current-carrying wire produces a magnetic field in the area around
it.

12/1/2019 3
 Cont…
 Magnetic fields are the fundamental mechanism by which energy is
converted from one form to another in motors, generators and
transformers. Four basic principles are:-
1.A current-carrying wire produces a magnetic field in the area around it.

2. A time-changing magnetic field induces a voltage in a coil of wire if it

passes through that coil. (transformer action.)

3. A current-carrying wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a

force induced on it.(motor action.)

4. A moving wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a voltage

induced in it. (generator action.)
 H

Diamagnetism
• In this material, all the orbital moments pair off.

Fig: Orbital diagram for

Neon (1s22s22p6)- 10 electrons

• When H is applied, electrons in this material rearrange their

orbital motion and the magnetic moment will oppose H.

• Diamagnetic materials have a very weak and negative

susceptibility (m) to external magnetic fields.

12/1/2019 5
 Diamagnetism
• Diamagnetic materials do not exhibit permanent magnetism,
and the induced magnetic moment disappears when the
applied field is withdrawn.

• Ex.: hydrogen, copper, gold, silicon, germanium, graphite,

bismuth, helium, sulfur.

12/1/2019 6
 H

Paramagnetism
• Paramagnetic materials have some unpaired electrons that produce the net
spin magnetic moments which tend to align themselves in the direction of
the external magnetic field.

Fig: Orbital diagram for

Aluminium

• They are weakly attracted to magnets and have a small positive

susceptibility (m) to magnetic fields.

• Paramagnetism is temperature dependent:

It becomes more magnetic when its temperature reduces.
It becomes less magnetic when its temperature increases.

• Ex.: Aluminum, Platinum, air, potassium, tungsten, liquid oxygen.

12/1/2019
 Ferromagnetism
• In these materials strong interactions between atomic
magnetic moments cause them to line up parallel to each
other in regions called magnetic domains.
• When there is no externally applied field, the orientations of
the domain magnetizations are random.
• But when H field is applied, they tend to orient themselves
parallel to the field. The domain boundaries also shift, the
domains magnetized in the field direction grow (A), and those
magnetized in other directions shrink (C).

Fig: Domain
theory

12/1/2019 8
 Ferromagnetism
• Ferromagnetic materials have a large and positive
susceptibility to an external magnetic field.

• Ferromagnetic materials lose all their magnetic

properties if they are heated to a high enough
temperature, due to the magnetized domains will
organize themselves randomly after their atoms are
being heated.

• The temperature at which a ferromagnetic material

loses its magnetism is called the Curie temperature
and it is different for every metal.
Fig: Curie point
• Ex: cobalt, nickel, iron are usually used to fabricate
permanent magnets due to the ability to retain their
magnetism properties for long time.

12/1/2019 9
12/1/2019 10
12/1/2019 11
 Properties of Magnetic Lines of Force

12/1/2019 12
 Cont………

12/1/2019 13
 Production of a Magnetic Field
1. Ampere’s Law – the basic law governing the production of a
magnetic field by a current:

• H is the magnetic field intensity produced by the current Inet

• dl is a differential element of length along the path of integration.
• H is measured in Ampere-turns per meter.
2.Consider a current currying conductor is wrapped around a
ferromagnetic core;
 Magnetic flux
Magnetic flux is a measure of the number of magnetic
field lines through a surface.

In the SI system magnetic flux is measured in units called

webers, abbreviated Wb, and its symbol is F.
One Weber equals 10 the power of 8 lines. In most practical
situations, the Weber is very large unit, thus micro Weber
(µwb) is more common. One micro Weber equals 100 lines of
magnetic flux.
 Magnetic Flux Density
 is the magnetic flux per unit cross-sectional area.

12/1/2019 16
 Magnetomotive Force
 ability of . magnetic flux is
a coil to produce called the
magnetomotive force.

12/1/2019 17
 Cont…
• which shows us that the magnetic flux is directly proportional
the magnetomotive force.
• This equation represents Ohm's law of magnetic circuits. The
proportionality factor ℜm, is called the reluctance of the magnetic
circuit and is obviously, analogous to resistance in an electric
circuit.
• Assuming that a coil has fixed turns and a constant excitation
current, the amount of magnetic flux produced will depend on
the material used in the core of the coil. A much larger amount of
flux can be produced in an iron core coil than in an air-core coil.
• Thus we see that the reluctance of the magnetic circuit depends on
the material properties of the magnetic circuit.

12/1/2019 18
 Magnetic Field Intensity
• is the magnetomotive force gradient per unit length of
magnetic circuit, or more commonly, the magnetic field
intensity. Its symbol is H and from the definition,

• We can derive a useful relationship for magnetic circuits

12/1/2019 19
 Permeability
 A graph of the flux density against the magnetizing (H),
gives rise to the permeability of any conducting medium.
 The permeability of free space and nonmagnetic materials
has the following symbol and constant value in SI units:

12/1/2019 20
 Magnetic Reluctance

• Reluctance is the magnetic resistance to the magnetic

circuit to the presence of magnetic flux.
• OR It is the property of the magnetic material which
opposes the creation of magnetic flux in it.

12/1/2019 21
 Magnetic Circuit with an Air Gap
• A simple magnetic circuit with an air gap of length lg cut in the
middle of a leg. The winding provides NI ampere-turn. The
spreading of the magnetic flux lines outside the common area of
the core for the air gap is known as fringing field.

Fig: A simple magnetic circuit with an air gap. Fig: (a)Air gap with fringing (b)without fringing
• For simplicity, this effect is negligible and the flux distribution is
assumed to be the ideal case.

22
 Magnetic Circuit with an Air Gap
• Applying the Ampère’s circuital law,
NI  H c Lc  H g Lg
where c = core, g = air gap.
• B =µH, Bc Fc
Hc  
c c Ac
Bg Fg
Hg  
g 0 Ag
• According to Gauss’s law of magnetism, the closed surface integral
of B must be equal to zero. Hence, the flux of B must be the same
over any cross section of the magnetic circuit and the air gap.
 B  ds  0
S

Fc  F g  F
Bc Ac  Bg Ag
23
 Magnetic Circuit with an Air Gap
• Solving those equations,
 Lc Lg 
Bg Ag     NI

 c c
A  0 g 
A 

• Magnetic flux is
NI Reluctances of the core
F  Bg Ag 
 Lc Lg  and air gap in series
  

 c c
A  0 g 
A 

24
 Magnetic circuit equivalent and electric circuit
analogy for electromagnet circuit
• The shown magnetic circuit with air gap is analogous to a
series electric circuit

F  Bg Ag 
NI NI  Rc  Rg F
F  Rc  Rg F
 Lc Lg 
  

 c c
A  0 g 
A 
• It is analogue to the Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) in electric
circuit theory, Vk  0  Fk   Rk F k  0
k k
k

F  R F
k
k
k
k k

• It states that the algebraic sum of the rises and drops of the
m.m.f around a closed loop of a magnetic circuit is equal to
zero. In other words, the sum of the m.m.f. rises equals the
sum of the m.m.f. drops around a closed loop.
25
 Magnetic circuit equivalent and electric circuit
analogy for electromagnet circuit
• The Gauss’s law of magnetism can be interpreted as an
analogue to the Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) in electric
circuit theory, F c  F g  F  I entering   I leaving
F entering   F leaving

where Fc and Fg are regarded as the “current entering/leaving” a junction in the magnetic
circuit.

• It states that the algebraic sum of the fluxes entering or leaving

a junction of a magnetic circuit is equal to zero. In other
words, the sum of the fluxes entering a junction is equal to the
sum of the fluxes leaving a junction.

26
 Magnetization Curve

12/1/2019 27
 Cont…
• The B-H graph for non- magnetic materials is a
straight line whereas that of the magnetic materials is
a curve.

12/1/2019 28
12/1/2019 29
Comparison between Magnetic Circuit and Electric
Circuit

• Differences between electric and magnetic circuits :

– The path of the magnetic flux flow B is perpendicular to the current flow
J in the circuit.
– For a given temperature, electric resistance is constant and does not
depend on current density. However, the magnetic reluctance depends on
magnetic field and flux intensity since the permeability is not constant.
– Current flowing in a electric circuit involves dissipation of energy, but
for magnetic circuit, energy is needed to generate magnetic flux.

30
12/1/2019 31
12/1/2019 32
 Magnetic Field Produced by Current-
Carrying Conductor

12/1/2019 33
 Right-Hand Rule

12/1/2019 34
12/1/2019 35
12/1/2019 36
12/1/2019 37
 Series Magnetic Circuit
• For series magnetic circuit having n number of paths the total
reluctance R is given by;
• Rτ= R1+R2+R3+….+Rn
• This is similar to resistors in series
Parallel Magnetic Circuit
• The analysis here is analogous to that of the parallel electric
circuit. That is to say, a magnetic circuit which has more than
one path for the flow of flux is called parallel magnetic circuit.

12/1/2019 38
 Example
• Illustrates the method of solution for a simple one-material
series circuit. The circuit of Figure is a magnetic core
made of cast steel. A coil of N turns is wound on it. For
a flux of 560 µWb, calculate the necessary current,
neglecting any fringing effects. The cross-sectional area A is
constant.

12/1/2019 39
12/1/2019 40
 Example
• The magnetic frame shown in Figure 1.12 is built up of
iron of square cross-section, 3 cm side. Each air gap is 2
mm wide. Each of the coils is wound with 1000 turns and the
exciting current is 1.0 A. The relative permeability of part A
and part B may be taken as 1000 and 1200 respectively.
Calculate the following: (i) reluctance of part A, (ii) reluctance
of part B,(iii) reluctance of two air gaps, (iv) total reluctance of
the complete magnetic circuit, (v) the mmf, (vi) total flux, and
(vii) flux density. Leakage and fringing may be neglected.

12/1/2019 41
12/1/2019 42
12/1/2019 43
12/1/2019 44
 Example

12/1/2019 45
 Cont…
 A ferromagnetic core is shown. Three sides of this core are of
uniform width, while the fourth side is somewhat thinner. The depth
of the core (into the page) is 10cm, and the other dimensions are
shown in the figure. There is a 200 turn coil wrapped around the left
side of the core. Assuming relative permeability µr of 2500, how
much flux will be produced by a 1A input current?
Solution:
3 sides of the core have the same csa, while the 4th side has a different
area. Thus the core can be divided into 2 regions:
(1) the single thinner side
(2) the other 3 sides taken together
The magnetic circuit corresponding
to this core:

12/1/2019 46
12/1/2019 47
 Example

12/1/2019 48
 Cont…

12/1/2019 49
12/1/2019 50
 A detailed magnetization curve for a typical piece of steel.
12/1/2019 51
12/1/2019 52
12/1/2019 53
12/1/2019 54
 Hysteresis
• Definition: A property of systems that H
do not instantly react to the forces
applied to them, but react slowly, or do
not return completely to their original
state.
• Measuring the magnetic flux B of a
ferromagnetic material while the
magnetizing force H is changed.
• o-a – The material has never been
previously magnetized or has been H
thoroughly demagnetized will follow
the dashed line as H is increased. The
greater the amount of current applied
(H+), the stronger the magnetic field in 0
the component (B+).
• a – Almost all of the magnetic domains
are aligned and an additional increase H=0
in the magnetizing force will produce
very little increase in magnetic flux.
The material has reached the point of
magnetic saturation.

Fig: Hysterisis Loop

12/1/2019 55
 Hysteresis
• a-b - H is reduced back down to H
zero.

• b - Some magnetic flux remains in

the material even though the
magnetizing force is zero. This is
referred to as the point of
retentivity on the graph and H
indicates the remanence or level
of residual magnetism in the
material. (Some of the magnetic 0
domains remain aligned but some
have lost their alignment.)
H=0

• b-c - As the magnetizing force is

reversed, the curve moves to point
c.

Fig: Hysterisis Loop

12/1/2019 56
 Hysteresis
• c - Where the flux has been
reduced to zero. This is called the
point of coercivity. (The reversed
magnetizing force has flipped
enough of the domains so that the
net flux within the material is
zero.) The force required to
remove the residual magnetism
from the material, is called the
coercive force or coercivity of the 0
material.
• c-d - Magnetizing force is
increased in the negative
direction.
• d - The material will again
become magnetically saturated
but in the opposite direction.
Fig: Hysterisis Loop
H

12/1/2019 57
 Hysteresis
• d-e - Reducing H to zero brings the
curve to point e. It will have a level
of residual magnetism equals to
that achieved in the other direction.

• e-f - Increasing H back in the

positive direction will return B to
zero. Notice that the curve did not
return to the origin of the graph
because some force is required to 0
remove the residual magnetism.
The curve will take a different path
from point f back the saturation
point where it with complete the
loop. H=0

• a-b-c-d-e-f-a - Complete close loop

is called as a hysteresis loop.
Fig: Hysterisis Loop
H

12/1/2019 58
 Hysteresis

Fig: (a) Hard Material

(b) Soft Material

• Hard material
High retentivity and coercivity - suitable for permanent
magnets.
Large hysteresis loss - not suitable for alternating
magnetization.

• Soft material
Small hysteresis loss - suitable for armature and transformer
core.
12/1/2019 59
12/1/2019 60
 Why does hysteresis occur?
 To understand hysteresis in a ferromagnetic core, we have to look into
the behaviour of its atomic structure before, during and after the
presence of a magnetic field.
 The atoms of iron and similar metals (cobalt, nickel, and some of their
alloys) tend to have their magnetic fields closely aligned with each
other. Within the metal, there is an existence of small regions known
as domains where in each domain there is a presence of a small
magnetic field which randomly aligned through the metal structure.
• This as shown below:

(a) Magnetic domains oriented randomly. (b) Magnetic domains lined up

in the
12/1/2019 presence of an external magnetic field. 61
 Cont…
 Magnetic field direction in each domain is random as such
that the net magnetic field is zero.
 When mmf is applied to the core, each magnetic field will
align with respect to the direction of the magnetic field.
That explains the exponential increase of magnetic flux
during the early stage of magnetisation. As more and more
domain are aligned to the magnetic field, the total magnetic
flux will maintain at a constant level hence as shown in the
magnetisation curve (saturation).

12/1/2019 62
 Cont…
 When mmf is removed, the magnetic field in each domain will try to
revert to its random state.
 However, not all magnetic field domain’s would revert to its random
state hence it remained in its previous magnetic field position. This is
due to the lack of energy required to disturb the magnetic field
alignment.
 Hence the material will retain some of its magnetic properties
(permanent magnet) up until an external energy is applied to the
material. Examples of external energy may be in the form of heat or
large mechanical shock. That is why a permanent magnet can lose its
magnetism if it is dropped, hit with a hammer or heated.
 Therefore, in an ac current situation, to realign the magnetic field in
each domain during the opposite cycle would require extra mmf (also
known as coercive mmf).
 This extra energy requirement is known as hysteresis loss.
12/1/2019 63
 Cont…
• The larger the material, the more energy is required hence the higher
the hysteresis loss.
• Area enclosed in the hysteresis loop formed by applying an ac current
to the core is directly proportional to the energy lost in a given ac cycl
II. Eddy Current Loss
• A time-changing flux induces voltage within a ferromagnetic core.
• These voltages cause swirls of current to flow within the core – eddy
currents.
• Energy is dissipated (in the form of heat) because these eddy currents
are flowing in a resistive material (iron).
• The amount of energy lost to eddy currents is proportional to the size
of the paths they follow within the core.
• To reduce energy loss, ferromagnetic core should be broken up into
small strips, or laminations, and build the core up out of these strips.
An insulating oxide or resin is used between the strips, so that the
current
12/1/2019 paths for eddy currents are limited to small areas. 64
conclusion
Core loss is extremely
important in practice,
since it greatly affects
operating temperatures,
efficiencies, and ratings
of magnetic devices.

12/1/2019 65
 How Magnetic Field can affect its surroundings
FARADAY’S LAW – Induced Voltage from a Time-Changing Magnetic Field
Faraday’s Law:
 ‘If a flux passes through a turn of a coil of wire, voltage will be
induced in the turn of the wire that is directly proportional to the rate
of change in the flux with respect of time’

 If there is N number of turns in the coil with the same amount of flux
flowing through it, hence:

Where: N – number of turns of wire in coil.

12/1/2019 66
 Cont…
• Note the negative sign at the equation above which is in accordance
to Lenz’ Law which states:
• ‘The direction of the build-up voltage in the coil is as such that if the
coils were short circuited, it would produce current that would cause
a flux opposing the original flux change.’ Examine the figure below:
• If the flux shown in the figure is increasing in strength, then the
voltage built up in the coil will tend to establish a flux that will
oppose the increase.

12/1/2019 67
 Cont…
• A current flowing as shown in the figure would produce a flux
opposing the increase.
• So, the voltage on the coil must be built up with the polarity required
to drive the current through the external circuit. So, -eind
 Faraday’s law is the fundamental property of magnetic fields
involved in transformer operation.

 Lenz’s Law in transformers is used to predict the polarity of the

voltages induced in transformer windings.

12/1/2019 68
Magnitude of Induced Emf in a Coil
• Let a coil consist of N number of turns over it. Assume that
the flux through the coil changes from its initial value φ1to
φ2in an interval t second.

• The negative sign in the Eq. above equation signifies

that the induced emf generates a current tending to oppose
the increase of flux through the coil. The relation expressed
by the above equation can be called Faraday's law.
12/1/2019 69
 Dynamically Induced emf
• Dynamically induced emf is produced by the movement of the
conductor in a magnetic field. Figure shows a uniform
magnetic field of flux density B tesla, in which the conductor
is moving in the direction shown and cuts the flux at right
angles.

12/1/2019 70
12/1/2019 71
 Cont…
2. Note: The value of l (length) is dependent upon the angle at
which the wire cuts through the magnetic field.
Hence a more complete formula will be as follows:
eind = (v x B)l cosθ
where:
 - angle between the conductor and the direction of (v x B)
3. The induction of voltages in a wire moving in a magnetic
field is fundamental to the operation of all types of generators.

12/1/2019 72
 Example

Figure 4 ; A conductor moving in the presence of a magnetic field.

Figure 4: shows a conductor moving with a velocity of 5.0 m/s to the right in the presence of a
magnetic field. The flux density is 0.5 T into the page, and the wire is 1.0 m in length, oriented as
shown. What are the magnitude and polarity of the resulting induced voltage?
Solution
Since v is perpendicular to B and since v X B is parallel to I, the magnitude of the
induced voltage reduces to

12/1/2019 73
Example. Figure 1-18 shows a conductor moving with a velocity of 10
m/s to the right in a magnetic field. The flux density is 0.5 T, out of the
page, and the wire is 1.0 m in length, oriented as shown. What are the
magnitude and polarity of the resulting induced voltage?

Solution:

12/1/2019 74
 Statically Induced emf
• When the conductor or coil remains stationary and the flux
linking with these conductors or coil undergo a change, an
emf is induced in the conductors. Such an induced emf is
termed as statically induced emf.
• Self-induced emf
• Any electrical circuit in which the change of current is
accompanied by the change of flux, and therefore by an
induced emf, is said to be inductive or to possess self
inductance. Thus the property of the coil which enables to
induce an emf in it whenever the current changes is called self-
induction.

12/1/2019 75
12/1/2019 76
 Mutually Induced emf
• The phenomenon of generation of induced emf in a
circuit by changing the current in a neighbouring circuit is
called mutual induction.

12/1/2019 77
12/1/2019 78
 Inductance
• Inductance is, in some sense, a mirror image of
capacitance. While capacitors store energy in an electric
field, inductors store energy in a magnetic field. While
capacitors prevent voltage from changing instantaneously,
inductors, as we shall see, prevent current from changing
instantaneously.

12/1/2019 79
  inductance is inversely proportional to reluctance ℜ. Recall that the
reluctance of a flux path through air is much greater than the
reluctance if it passes through a ferromagnetic material.
 That tells us if we want a large inductance, the flux needs to pass
through materials with high permeability (not air).
12/1/2019 80
 Production of Induced Force on a Wire.
1. A current carrying conductor present in a uniform magnetic field of
flux density B, would produce a force to the conductor/wire. Dependent
upon the direction of the surrounding magnetic field, the force induced is
given by:

• where:
i – represents the current flow in the conductor
l – length of wire, with direction of l defined to be in the direction of
current flow
B – magnetic field density
 The induction of a force in a wire by a current in the presence of a
magnetic field is the basis of motor action.

12/1/2019 81
 Cont…
2. The direction of the force is given by the right-hand rule. Direction of
the force depends on the direction of current flow and the direction of the
surrounding magnetic field. A rule of thumb to determine the direction
can be found using the right-hand rule as shown below:

Right Hand rule

3. The induced force formula shown earlier is true if the current carrying
conductor is perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field. If the
current carrying conductor is position at an angle to the magnetic field,
the formula is modified to be as follows:

Where:  - angle between the conductor and the direction of the

magnetic
12/1/2019
field. 82
 Example

Figure 3 : current-carrying wire in the presence of a magnetic field.

Figure 3 shows a wire carrying a current in the presence of a magnetic field. The magnetic flux
density is 0.25 T. directed into the page. If the wire is 1.0 m long and carries 0.5 A of current in
the direction from the top of the page to the bottom of the page. what are the magnitude and
direction of the force induced on the wire?
Solution
The direction of the force is given by the right-hand rule as being to the right. The magnitude
is given by

12/1/2019 83
12/1/2019 84