Fluid Mechanics

PHYSICS I CHAPTER 12
Fluid
Is any substance that can flow and change the shape of the
volume that it occupies. We use the term “fluid” for both gases
and liquids.
The key difference between them is that a liquid has
cohesion, while a gas does not.
Fluid Statics and Dynamics
Fluid Statics is the study of fluids at rest in equilibrium
situations. This includes concepts of:
• Density
• Pressure
• Buoyancy

Fluid Dynamics is the study of fluids in motion. It describes

how liquids and gases behave while in motion.
12.1. Density
is defined as the mass per unit volume. It is an intensive
property, which is mathematically defined as mass divided by
volume.
We use  (the Greek letter rho) for density. For a
homogeneous material,
m Mass of material
=
v Volume occupied by material

The SI unit of density is the kilogram per cubic meter

(1 kg/m3 )
Specific Gravity Relative
Density

The specific gravity of a material is the ratio of its density to

the density of water at 4.0°C = 1000 kg/m3; it is a pure number
without units.

 substance Density of Material

Specific Gravity =
 water Density of Water at 4.0°C
Average Density
The density of some materials varies from point to point within
the material. For these materials, the following equation describes
its average density:

msubstance Mass of Material

Average Density =
Vsubstance Volume occupied by the Material
Density of Common Substances
Sample Problem The Weight of a
Roomful of Air

Find the mass and weight of the air at 20°C in a living room
with a 4.0 m x 5.0 m floor and a ceiling 3.0 m high, and the mass
and weight of an equal volume of water.

Given: Find:
length = 4.0 meters massair
width = 5.0 meters
weightair
height = 3.0 meters
masswater
 air (20°C) = 1.20 kg/m3
weightwater
 water = 1000 kg/m3
Solution
V (Volume) = length x width x height
V = (4.0 m) x (5.0 m) x (3.0 m)
V = 60 m3

mair =  air • vair wair = mair • g

mair = 1.20 kg/m3 • 60 m3 wair = 72 kg • 9.8 m/s2
mair = 72 kg wair = 700 kg m/s2
wair = 700 N
Solution
mwater =  water • vwater
mwater = 1000 kg/m3 • 60 m3
mwater = 60 000 kg
mwater = 6.0 x 104 kg
wwater = mwater • g
wwater = 6.0 x 104 kg • 9.8 m/s2
wwater = 5.9 x 105 kg m/s2
wwater = 5.9 x 105 N
12.2. Pressure in a Fluid
A fluid exerts a force perpendicular to any surface in contact
with it, such as a container wall or a body immersed in the fluid.
Even when a fluid as a whole is at rest, the molecules that
make up the fluid are in motion.
 Pressure in a Fluid
Consider a small surface of area dA centered on
a point in the fluid; the normal force exerted by the
fluid on each side is dF T dF T
dF T

We define the pressure p at that point as the dA

normal force per unit area; that is

dF Normal Force exerted by fluid on the surface

p=
T
Pressure at a point in
a fluid
dA Area of surface
Pressure in a Fluid
If the pressure is the same at all points of a finite plane
surface with area A, then:

F Net Normal Force exerted by fluid on the surface

p=
T

A Area of surface

The SI unit of pressure is the Pascal, where:

1 Pascal = 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
Atmospheric Pressure
Atmospheric pressure pa is the pressure of the earth’s
atmosphere. This pressure varies with weather changes and with
elevation. Normal atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1
atmosphere (atm)

(pa)av = 1 atm = 1.013 x 105 Pa

105 Pa = 1 bar
1 atm = 1.013 bar
Sample Problem The Force of Air

In the room described in the previous problem, what is the

total downward force on the floor due to an air pressure of 1.00
atm?

Given: Find:
length = 4.0 meters F T

width = 5.0 meters

pair = 1.00 atm
= 1.013 x 105 Pa
Solution
Area = length x width
A = (4.0 m) x (5.0 m)
A = 20 m2
FT
= pA
FT
= (1.013 x 105 N/m2) (20 m2)
F = 2.0 x 10 N
T 6
Pressure and Depth
If the weight of the fluid can be ignored, the pressure in a fluid
is the same throughout its volume. But often the fluid’s weight is
not negligible, and pressure variations are important.
Pressure and Depth
If the fluid is in equilibrium, any thin element of the fluid with
thickness dy is also in equilibrium.

dV = A dy
dm =  dV
Fy = 0
=  A dy pA – (p + dp)A -  gAdy = 0
dw = dm g dp
=  gA dy =- g
dy
Pressure Difference
If p1 and p2 are the pressures at elevations y1 and y2,
respectively, and if  and g are constant, then:

p2 – p1 = -  g • (y2 – y1 )
Pressure Difference
The depth of point 1 below the surface is
h = y2 - y1
p0 – p = -  g • (y2 – y1 ) = - gh
p0 – p = - gh
The pressure p at a depth h is greater than the pressure p0
at the surface by an amount  gh.
 Pascal’s Law
Pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted
undiminished to every portion of the fluid and the walls of the
containing vessel.

F1 F2
p= =
A1 A2 F2
F1

The hydraulic lift is a force-multiplying device with a

multiplication factor equal to the ratio of the areas of the z
two pistons. A1 A2
Absolute and Gauge Pressure
The excess pressure above atmospheric pressure is usually
called gauge pressure, and the total pressure is called absolute
pressure.
Sample Problem Finding Absolute and
Gauge Pressures

Water stands 12.0 m deep in a storage tank whose top is

open to the atmosphere. What are the absolute and gauge
pressures at the bottom of the tank?

Given: Find:
h = 12.0 meters absolute pressure
0 = 1000 kg/m3 gauge pressure
0 = 1 atm
= 1.01 x 105 Pa
Solution
Absolute Pressure
p = p0 +  gh
= (1.01 x 105 Pa) + (1000 kg/m3) (9.80 m/s2) (12. 0 m)

= 2.19 x 105 Pa
Gauge Pressure
= p - p0
= 2.19 x 105 Pa - 1.01 x 105 Pa
= 1.18 x 105 Pa
12.3 Buoyancy Archimedes
Principle

When a body is completely or partially immersed in a fluid,

the fluid exerts an upward force on the body equal to the weight
of the fluid displaced by the body.
Buoyant Force
To prove this principle, we consider an arbitrary element of fluid at
rest. The entire fluid is in equilibrium, so the sum of all the y-components
of force on this element of fluid is zero. Hence the sum of the y-
components of the surface forces must be an upward force equal in
magnitude to the weight of the fluid inside the surface.
Sample Problem Buoyancy
A 15.0-kg solid gold statue is raised from the sea bottom.
What is the tension in the hoisting cable (assumed massless)
when the statue is:
(a) at rest and completely underwater; and
(b) at rest and completely out of the water?

Given: Find:
mgold = 15.0 kg T(a)
 gold = 1.20 kg/m3
T(b)
 seawater = 1030 kg/m3
Solution
Free-body Diagram of Statue
mstatue
V = 
gold

15.0 kg
V =
19.3 x 103 kg / m3

V = 7.74 x 10-4 m3
Solution
Buoyant force = wsw = mswg =  swVg

Bsw = (1030 kg/m3) (7.74 x 10-4 m3) (9.8 m/s2)

Bsw = 7.84 kg m/s2
Bsw = 7.84 N
Solution
The statue is at rest, so the net external force acting on it
is zero.
Fy = 0
Fy = Bsw + Tsw + ( -mstatueg )
Tsw = mstatueg - Bsw
Tsw = (15.0 kg) (9.80 m/s2) – 7.84 N
Tsw = 147 N – 7.84 N
Tsw = 139.16 N
Solution
The density of air is about 1.2 kg/m3, so the buoyant force
of air on the statue is:

Bair =  airVg
Bair = (1.2 kg/m3) (7.74 x 10-4 m3) (9.80 m/s2)
Bair = 9.1 x 10-3 N
Take Note!
The buoyant force is proportional to the density
of the fluid in which the statue is immersed, not the
density of the statue.
Surface Tension
Surface tension arises because the
molecules of the liquid exert
attractive forces on each other.

There is zero net force on a molecule within the interior

of the liquid, but a surface molecule is drawn into the
interior Thus the liquid tends to minimize its surface area,
just as a stretched membrane does.
Surface Tension
Surface tension explains why
raindrops are spherical. A sphere has
a smaller surface area for its volume
than any other shape.
12.4 Fluid Flow
An ideal fluid is a fluid that is incompressible and has
no internal friction (called viscosity).
The path of an individual particle in a moving fluid is
called a flow line. In steady flow, the overall flow pattern
does not change with time, so every element passing
through a given point follows the same flow line.
Fluid Flow
A streamline is a curve whose tangent at any point is in
the direction of the fluid velocity at that point. When the
flow pattern changes with time, the streamlines do not
coincide with the flow lines.
The flow lines passing through the edge of an
imaginary element of area form a tube called a flow tube.
Laminar Flow
Laminar flow, is a flow in which the
fluid travels smoothly or in regular paths.

In laminar flow, sometimes called

streamline flow, the velocity, pressure,
and other flow properties at each point in
the fluid remain constant.
Turbulent Flow
Turbulent flow, is a flow in which the
fluid undergoes irregular fluctuations, or
mixing.

In turbulent flow the speed of the

fluid at a point is continuously
undergoing changes in both magnitude
and direction.
The Continuity Equation
The mass of a moving fluid doesn’t change as it flows.
This leads to an important relationship called the
continuity equation.
The Continuity Equation
During a small time interval dt, the fluid
at A1 moves a distance ds1 = v1 dt, so a
cylinder of fluid with height v1 dt and
volume dV1 = A1v1 dt flows into the tube
across A1.
During this same interval, a cylinder of
volume dV2 = A2v2 dt flows out of the
tube across A2.
The Continuity Equation
The mass dm1 flowing into the tube across A1 in time dt is
dm1 = A1v1 dt. Similarly, the mass dm2 that flows out across
A2 in the same time is dm2 = A2v2 dt. In steady flow the total
mass in the tube is constant, so dm1 = dm2 and:
A1v1 dt = A2v2 dt
A1v1 = A2v2
Equation for Incompressible fluids
The Continuity Equation
The product Av is the volume flow rate dV / dt, the rate at
which volume crosses a section of the tube:
dV
= Av
dt
The mass flow rate is the mass flow per unit time through
a cross section. This is equal to:
dV
mass flow rate = ()
dt
The Continuity Equation
Compressible Fluids

For the case in which the fluid is not incompressible. If  1

and  2 are the densities at sections 1 and 2, then:
 1A1v1 =  2A2v2
If the fluid is denser at point 2 than at point 1 ( 2 >  1), the
volume flow rate at point 2 will be less than at point 1.
Sample Problem Flow of an
Incompressible Fluid

Incompressible oil of density 850 kg/m3 is pumped

through a cylindrical pipe at a rate of 9.5 liters per
second.
(a) The first section of the pipe has a diameter of 8.0
cm. What is the flow speed of the oil? What is the
mass flow rate?
(b) The second section of the pipe has a diameter of 4.0
cm. What are the flow speed and mass flow rate in
that section?
Sample Problem Flow of an
Incompressible Fluid

Given: Find:
 oil = 850 kg/m3 a.) flow speed
flow rate = 9.5 L/s mass flow rate
a.) d = 0.08 meter b.) flow speed
b.) d = 0.04 meter
mass flow rate
Solution A
dV
= A 1v 1
dt
dV / dt
v1 =
A1
v1 = (9.5 L/s) / (10-3 m3/L)
 (0.04 m)2
v1 = 1. 9 m/s
Solution A
mass flow rate =  oil (dV/dt)
= (850 kg/m3) (0.0095 m3/s)
= 8.1 kg/s
Solution B
A1v1 = A2v2
A1 V1
v2 =
A2
[  (0.04m)2 ] (1.19 m/s)
v2 =
 (0.02 m)2

v2 = 7.61 m/s = 4v1

12.5 Bernoulli’s Equation
The Bernoulli Equation can be considered as a statement of
the conservation of energy principle appropriate for flowing
fluids. The qualitative behavior that is usually labeled with the
term "Bernoulli effect" is the lowering of fluid pressure in regions
where the flow velocity is increased.

V2
V1

P2
P1
Bernoulli’s Equation Derivation
Distance from a to b with time dt
ds1 = v1 dt
Distance from c to d with time dt
ds2 = v2 dt
Since liquid is incompressible, we can use the
continuity equation:

dV = A1 ds1 = A2 ds2
Derivation
Force acting on a
Fa =  1 A1
Force acting on b
Fb =  2 A2
Derivation
The net work dW done on the element
by the surrounding fluid during this
displacement is therefore:

dW =  1 A1 ds1 -  2 A2 ds2
dW = ( 1- 2) dV
The term  2 A2 ds2 has a negative sign
because the force at c opposes the
displacement of the fluid.
Derivation
Kinetic energy from a to b
 
KE1 =  (A1ds1 ) v12

Kinetic energy from c to d

 
KE2 =  (A2ds2 ) v22
 Derivation
The net change in kinetic energy
dK during time dt is

dK =  dV ( v – v2 )
 
2 2
1

Net Change in Kinetic Energy

Derivation
Potential energy of mass from a to b
PE1 =  dV gy1

Potential energy of mass from c to d

PE2 =  dV gy2
Derivation
The net change in potential energy
dU during dt is

dU =  dV g( y1 – y2 )
Net Change in Gravitational Potential Energy
 Bernoulli’s Equation
Combining the equations to form the energy equation:
dW = dK + dU
We obtain:
( 1- 2) dV = [  dV ( v12 – v22 ) ] + [ dV g( y1 – y2 ) ]
 

( 1- 2) = [  ( v12 – v22 ) ] + [ g( y1 – y2 ) ]

 

Bernoulli’s Equation
 Bernoulli’s Equation
Can be expressed in a more convenient form as:
 1 + gy1 + v12 =  2 + gy2 + v22
 

Subscripts 1 and 2 refer to any two points along the flow

tube, so we can write:
 + gy + v2 = constant
 
Sample Problem Water Pressure
in the Home

Water enters a house through a pipe

with an inside diameter of 2.0 cm at an
absolute pressure of 4.0 x 105 Pa. A
1.0-cm-diameter pipe leads to the
second-floor bathroom 5.0 m above.
When the flow speed at the inlet pipe is
1.5 m/s, find the flow speed, pressure,
and volume flow rate in the bathroom.
Sample Problem Flow of an
Incompressible Fluid

Given:
1 = 4.0 x 105 Pa
v1 = 1.5 m/s
d1 = 0.02 meter
d2 = 0.01 meter
y
Find:= 5.0 meters
flow speed
pressure
volume flow rate
Solution
v2
A1
v2 = A2
v1

 (0.01 m) 2 (1.5 m/s)

v2 =  (0.005 m)2

v2 = 6.0 m/s
Solution
2
 2 =  1 - [  ( v12 – v22 ) ] - [ g( y1 – y2 ) ]
= (4.0 x 105 Pa)
- [ (1000 kg/m3) (6 m/s)2 - (2.25 m/s)2 ]
- [ (1000 kg/m3) (9.8 m/s2) (5.0 m) ]

 2 = 3.3 x 10 Pa5
Solution
dV
= A2v2
dt
=  (0.005 m)2 (6.0 m/s)

dV
dt
= 0.47 L/s
12.6 Viscosity and Turbulence
Viscosity is internal friction in a fluid. Viscous
forces oppose the motion of one portion of a fluid
relative to another.

Viscosities of all fluids are strongly temperature

dependent, increasing for gases and decreasing for
liquids as the temperature increases.
Viscosity Velocity
Profile
Turbulence
When the speed of a flowing fluid exceeds a
certain critical value, the flow is no longer laminar.
Instead, the flow pattern becomes extremely
irregular and complex, and it changes continuously
with time.

This irregular, chaotic flow is called turbulence.