Chapter 7

Chapter 7
Stock Valuation
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

Differences Between Debt & Equity
Table 7.1 Key Differences between Debt and Equity

Capital
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. 7-2

The Nature of Equity Capital:
Voice in Management
• Unlike bondholders and other credit holders,

holders of equity capital are owners of the firm.
• Common equity holders have voting rights that
permit them to elect the firm’s board of directors
and to vote on special issues.
• Bondholders and preferred stockholders receive
no such privileges.

Claims on Income & Assets
• Equity holders are have a residual claim on the firm’s

income and assets.
• Their claims can not be paid until the claims of all
creditors, including both interest and principle
payments on debt have been satisfied.
• Because equity holders are the last to receive
distributions, they expect greater returns to compensate
them for the additional risk they bear.

The Nature of Equity Capital: Maturity
• Unlike debt, equity capital is a permanent form

of financing.
• Equity has no maturity date and never has to be
repaid by the firm.

Tax Treatment
• While interest paid to bondholders is tax-

deductible to the issuing firm, dividends paid to
preferred and common stockholders of the
corporation is not.
• In effect, this further lowers the cost of debt
relative to the cost of equity as a source of
financing to the firm.

Common Stock
• Common stockholders, who are sometimes referred to

as residual owners or residual claimants, are the true
owners of the firm.
• As residual owners, common stockholders receive what
is left—the residual—after all other claims on the firms
income and assets have been satisfied.
• Because of this uncertain position, common
stockholders expect to be compensated with adequate
dividends and ultimately, capital gains.

Common Stock: Ownership
• The common stock of a firm can be privately owned

by an individual, closely owned by a small group of
investors, or publicly owned by a broad group of
investors.
• Typically, small corporations are privately or closely
owned and if their shares are traded, this occurs
infrequently and in small amounts.
• Large corporations are typically publicly owned and
have shares that are actively traded on major securities
exchanges.
Common Stock: Par Value
• Unlike bonds, common stock may be sold

without par value.
• The par value of a common stock is generally
low ($1) and is a relatively useless value
established in the firm’s corporate charter.
• A low par value may be advantageous in states
where certain corporate taxes are based on the
par value of the stock.

Common Stock: Preemptive Rights
• A preemptive right allows common stockholders to

maintain their proportionate ownership in a corporation
when new shares are issued.
• This allows existing shareholders to maintain voting
control and protect against the dilution of their
ownership.
• In a rights offering, the firm grants rights to its
existing shareholders, which permits them to purchase
additional shares at a price below the current price.

Common Stock: Authorized,
Outstanding, and Issued Shares
• Authorized shares are the number of shares of

common stock that a firm’s corporate charter allows.
• Outstanding shares are the number of shares of
common stock held by the public.
• Treasury stock is the number of outstanding shares
that have been purchased by the firm.
• Issued shares are the number of shares that have been
put into circulation and includes both outstanding
shares and treasury stock.

Common Stock: Authorized,
Outstanding, and Issued Shares (cont.)
Golden Enterprises, a producer of medical pumps, has the

following stockholder’s equity account on December 31st.

Common Stock: Voting Rights
• Each share of common stock entitles its holder to one

vote in the election of directors and on special issues.
• Votes are generally assignable and may be cast at the
annual stockholders meeting.
• Many firms have issued two or more classes of stock
differing mainly in having unequal voting rights.
• Usually, class A common stock is designated as
nonvoting while class B is designated as voting.

Common Stock: Voting Rights (cont.)
• Because most shareholders do not attend the

annual meeting to vote, they may sign a proxy
statement giving their votes to another party.
• Occasionally, when the firm is widely owned,
outsiders may wage a proxy battle to unseat
existing management and gain control.

Common Stock: Dividends
• Payment of dividends is at the discretion of the board

of directors.
• Dividends may be made in cash, additional shares of
stock, and even merchandise.
• Because stockholders are residual claimants—they
receive dividend payments only after all claims have
been settled with the government, creditors, and
preferred stockholders.

Preferred Stock
• Preferred stock is an equity instrument that usually

pays a fixed dividend and has a prior claim on the
firm’s earnings and assets in case of liquidation.
• The dividend is expressed as either a dollar amount or
as a percentage of its par value.
• Therefore, unlike common stock a preferred stock’s par
value may have real significance.
• If a firm fails to pay a preferred stock dividend, the
dividend is said to be in arrears.

Preferred Stock (cont.)
• In general, and arrearage must be paid before common

stockholders receive a dividend.
• Preferred stocks which possess this characteristic are
called cumulative preferred stocks.
• Preferred stocks are also often referred to as hybrid
securities because they possess the characteristics of
both common stocks and bonds.
• Preferred stocks are like common stock because they
are perpetual securities with no maturity date.

Preferred Stock (cont.)
• Preferred stocks are like bonds because they are fixed

income securities. Dividends never change.
• Because preferred stocks are perpetual, many have call
features which give the issuing firm the option to retire
them should the need or advantage arise.
• In addition, some preferred stocks have mandatory
sinking funds which allow the firm to retire the issue
over time.
• Finally, participating preferred stock allows preferred
stockholders to participate with common stockholders in
the receipt of dividends beyond a specified amount.

Issuing Common Stock
• Initial financing for most firms typically comes from a

firm’s original founders in the form of a common
stock investment.
• Early stage debt or equity investors are unlikely to make
an investment in a firm unless the founders also have a
personal stake in the business.
• Initial non-founder financing usually comes first from
private equity investors.
• After establishing itself, a firm will often “go public” by
issuing shares of stock to a much broader group.

Common Stock Valuation
• Stockholders expect to be compensated for

their investment in a firm’s shares through
periodic dividends and capital gains.
• Investors purchase shares when they feel they
are undervalued and sell them when they
believe they are overvalued.
• This section describes specific stock valuation
techniques after first discussing the concept of
market efficiency.
Common Stock Valuation:
Market Efficiency
• Investors base their investment decisions on

their perceptions of an asset’s risk.
• In competitive markets, the interaction of many
buyers and sellers result’s in an equilibrium
price—the market value—for each security.
• This price is reflective of all information
available to market participants in making buy
or sell investment decisions.

Common Stock Valuation: Market
Adjustment to New Information
• The process of market adjustment to new information can

be viewed in terms of rates of return.
• Whenever investors find that the expected return is not
equal to the required return, price adjustment will occur.
• If expected return is greater than required return,
investors will buy and bid up price until new equilibrium
price is reached.
• The opposite would occur if required return is greater than
expected return.

Common Stock Valuation: Market
Adjustment to New Information (cont.)
• The expected return can be estimated by using the following

equation:
• Whenever investors find that the expected return is not equal to

the required return, a market price adjustment occurs.
• If the expected return is less than the required return, investors
sell the asset because they do not expect it to earn a return
commensurate with its risk.

The Efficient Market Hypothesis
• The efficient market hypothesis, which is the basic theory

describing the behavior of a “perfect” market specifically states:
– Securities are typically in equilibrium, meaning they are fairly priced and
their expected returns equal their required returns.
– At any point in time, security prices full reflect all public information
available about a firm and its securities and these prices react quickly to
new information.
– Because stocks are fairly priced, investors need not waste time trying to
find and capitalize on improperly priced securities.

The Behavioral Finance Challenge
• Although considerable evidence supports the concept of

market efficiency, research collectively known as
behavioral finance has begun to cast doubt on this
notion.
• Behavioral finance is a growing body of research that
focuses on investor behavior and its impact on
investment decisions and stock prices.
• Throughout this book, we ignore both disbelievers and
behaviorists and continue to assume market efficiency.

Common Stock Valuation
Stock Returns are derived from both dividends and

capital gains, where the capital gain results from the
appreciation of the stock’s market price.due to the
growth in the firm’s earnings. Mathematically, the
expected return may be expressed as follows:
E(r) = D/P + g
For example, if the firm’s $1 dividend on a $25 stock is

expected to grow at 7%, the expected return is:
E(r) = 1/25 + .07 = 11%

Stock Valuation Models:
The Basic Stock Valuation Equation

The Zero Growth Model
• The zero dividend growth model assumes that

the stock will pay the same dividend each year,
year after year.

The Zero Growth Model (cont.)
The dividend of Denham Company, an established textile

manufacturer, is expected to remain constant at $3 per
share indefinitely. What is the value of Denham’s stock if the
required return demanded by investors is 15%?
P0 = $3/0.15 = $20
• Note that the zero growth model is also the appropriate

valuation technique for valuing preferred stock.

Constant Growth Model
• The constant dividend growth model assumes

that the stock will pay dividends that grow at a
constant rate each year—year after year forever.

Constant Growth Model (cont.)
Lamar Company, a small cosmetics company, paid the

following per share dividends:

Constant Growth Model (cont.)
Using Appendix Table A-2 and time value techniques, we

can determine that the growth in dividends is 7%.
P0 = $1.50/(0.15 – 0.07) = $18.75
• Assuming the values of D1, rs, and g are

accurately estimated, Lamar Company’s stock
value is $18.75 per share.

Variable-Growth Model
• The non-constant dividend growth or variable-growth

model assumes that the stock will pay dividends that
grow at one rate during one period, and at another rate in
another year or thereafter.
• We will use a four-step procedure to estimate the value of

a share of stock assuming that a single shift in growth
rates occurs at the end of year N.
• We will use g1 to represent the initial growth rate and g2

to represent the growth rate after the shift.
Variable-Growth Model (cont.)
Step 1. Find the value of the cash dividends at the end of

each year, Dt, during the initial growth period, years 1
though N.

Step 2. Find the present value of the dividends expected

during the initial growth period.

Step 3. Find the value of the stock at the end of the initial
growth period, PN = (DN+1)/(ks-g2), which is the present
value of all dividends expected from year N+1 to infinity,
assuming a constant dividend growth rate, g2.

Step 4. Add the present value components found in

Steps 2 and 3 to find the value of the stock, P0, given
in Equation 7.6.

The most recent annual (2006) dividend payment of Warren

Industries, a rapidly growing boat manufacturer, was $1.50
per share. The firm’s financial manager expects that these
dividends will increase at a 10% annual rate, g1, over the
next three years. At the end of three years (the end of
2009), the firm’s mature is expected to result in a slowing of
the dividend growth rate to 5% per year, g2, for the
foreseeable future. The firm’s required return, ks, is 15%.

Steps 1 and 2. See Table 7.3 below.
Table 7.3 Calculation of Present Value of Warren

Industries Dividends (2010–2012)

Step 3. The value of the stock at the end of the initial

growth period (N = 2009) can be found by first calculating
DN+1 = D2010.
D2010 = D2009 X (1 + 0.05) = $2.00 X (1.05) = $2.10
By using D2010 = $2.10, a 15% required return, and a 5%

dividend growth rate, we can calculate the value of the
stock, P2009, at the end of 2009 as follows:
P2009 = D2010 / (rs-g2) = $2.10 / (.15 - .05) = $21.00

Step 3 (continued). Finally, in Step 3, the share value of

$21 at the end of 2009 must be converted into a present
(end of 2006) value.
PVIFrs,N X PN = PVIF15%,3 X P2009 = 0.658 X $21.00 = $13.82
Step 4. Adding the PV of the initial dividend stream

(found in Step 2) to the PV of the stock at the end of the
initial growth period (found in Step 3), we get:
P2006 = $4.14 + $13.82 = $17.96 per share

This example can be summarized using the time line below:

Free Cash Flow Model
• The free cash flow model is based on the same premise

as the dividend valuation models except that we value
the firm’s free cash flows rather than dividends.

Free Cash Flow Model (cont.)
• The free cash flow valuation model estimates the value

of the entire company and uses the cost of capital as
the discount rate.
• As a result, the value of the firm’s debt and preferred
stock must be subtracted from the value of the company
to estimate the value of equity.

Dewhurst Inc. wishes to value its stock using the free cash flow model.
To apply the model, the firm’s CFO developed the data given in Table 7.4.
Table 7.4 Dewhurst, Inc.’s Data for the Free Cash Flow Valuation Model

Step 1. Calculate the present value of the free cash flow

occurring from the end of 2012 to infinity, measured at
the beginning of 2012.

Step 2. Add the PV (in 2011) of the FCF for 2012 found in
Step 1 to the FCF for 2011 to get total FCF for 2011.
Total FCF2011 = $600,000 + $10,300,000 = $10,900,000
Step 3. Find the sum of the present values of the FCFs for
2007 through 2011 to determine, VC, and the market values
of debt, VD, and preferred stock, VP, given in Table 7.5 on the
following slide.

Table 7.5 Calculation of the Value of the Entire

Company for Dewhurst, Inc.

Step 4. Calculate the value of the common stock using

equation 7.8. Substituting the value of the entire
company, VC, calculated in Step 3, and the market value
of the debt, VD, and preferred stock, VP, yields the value
of the common stock, VS.
VS = $8,628,620 - $3,100,000 = $4,728,620

P0 = $4,728,628 / 300,000 shares = $15.16 per share

Other Approaches to Stock Valuation:
Book Value
• Book value per share is the amount per share that

would be received if all the firm’s assets were sold for
their exact book value and if the proceeds remaining
after paying all liabilities were divided among common
stockholders.
• This method lacks sophistication and its reliance on
historical balance sheet data ignores the firm’s earnings
potential and lacks any true relationship to the firm’s
value in the marketplace.

Liquidation Value
• Liquidation value per share is the actual amount per

share of common stock to be received if al of the firm’s
assets were sold for their market values, liabilities were
paid, and any remaining funds were divided among
common stockholders.
• This measure is more realistic than book value because
it is based on current market values of the firm’s assets.
• However, it still fails to consider the earning power of
those assets.

Price/Earnings (P/E) Multiples
• Some stocks pay no dividends—using P/E ratios are

one way to evaluate a stock under these circumstances.
• The model may be written as:
P0 = (EPSt+1) X (Industry Average P/E)
For example, Lamar’s expected EPS is

$2.60/share and the industry average P/E
multiple is 7, then P0 = $2.60 X 7 = $18.20/share.
Decision Making
and Common Stock Value
• Valuation equations measure the stock value at a point in time

based on expected return and risk.
• Any decisions of the financial manager that affect these variables
can cause the value of the firm to change as shown in the Figure
below.
Figure 7.4 Decision Making and Stock Value

Decision Making and Common Stock Value:
Changes in Dividends or Dividend Growth
• Changes in expected dividends or dividend growth can

have a profound impact on the value of a stock.
Price Sensitivity to Changes in Dividends and Dividend Growth

(Using the Constant Growth Model)
D0 $ 2.00 $ 2.50 $ 3.00 $ 2.00 $ 2.00 $ 2.00
g 3.0% 3.0% 3.0% 3.0% 6.0% 9.0%
D1 $ 2.06 $ 2.58 $ 3.09 $ 2.06 $ 2.12 $ 2.18
kS 10.0% 10.0% 10.0% 10.0% 10.0% 10.0%
P0 $ 29.43 $ 36.79 $ 44.14 $ 29.43 $ 53.00 $ 218.00

Decision Making and Common Stock Value:
Changes in Risk and Required Return
• Changes in expected dividends or dividend growth can

have a profound impact on the value of a stock.
Price Sensitivity to Changes Risk (Required Return)

(Using the Constant Growth Model)
D0 $ 2.00 $ 2.00 $ 2.00 $ 2.00 $ 2.00 $ 2.00
g 3.0% 3.0% 3.0% 3.0% 3.0% 3.0%
D1 $ 2.06 $ 2.06 $ 2.06 $ 2.06 $ 2.06 $ 2.06
kS 5.0% 7.5% 10.0% 12.5% 15.0% 17.5%
P0 $ 103.00 $ 45.78 $ 29.43 $ 21.68 $ 17.17 $ 14.21

Table 7.6 Summary of Key Valuation
Definitions and Formulas for Common
Stock (cont.)

Table 7.6 Summary of Key Valuation
Definitions and Formulas for Common
Stock

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Chapter 7

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

Table 7.1 Key Differences between Debt and Equity

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. 7-2

• Unlike bondholders and other credit holders,

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. 7-3

• Equity holders are have a residual claim on the firm’s

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. 7-4

• Unlike debt, equity capital is a permanent form

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. 7-5

• While interest paid to bondholders is tax-

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. 7-6

• Common stockholders, who are sometimes referred to

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. 7-7

• The common stock of a firm can be privately owned

• Unlike bonds, common stock may be sold

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. 7-9

• A preemptive right allows common stockholders to

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. 7-10

• Authorized shares are the number of shares of

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. 7-11

Golden Enterprises, a producer of medical pumps, has the

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. 7-12

• Each share of common stock entitles its holder to one

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. 7-13

• Because most shareholders do not attend the

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. 7-14

• Payment of dividends is at the discretion of the board

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. 7-15

• Preferred stock is an equity instrument that usually

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. 7-16

• In general, and arrearage must be paid before common

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. 7-17

• Preferred stocks are like bonds because they are fixed

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. 7-18

• Initial financing for most firms typically comes from a

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. 7-19

• Stockholders expect to be compensated for

• Investors base their investment decisions on

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. 7-21

• The process of market adjustment to new information can

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. 7-22

• The expected return can be estimated by using the following

• Whenever investors find that the expected return is not equal to

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. 7-23

• The efficient market hypothesis, which is the basic theory

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. 7-24

• Although considerable evidence supports the concept of

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. 7-25

Stock Returns are derived from both dividends and

For example, if the firm’s $1 dividend on a $25 stock is

E(r) = 1/25 + .07 = 11%

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. 7-26

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. 7-27

• The zero dividend growth model assumes that

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. 7-28

The dividend of Denham Company, an established textile

• Note that the zero growth model is also the appropriate

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. 7-29