Dr.

Muhammad Shahid
NUST Institute of Civil Engineering (NICE)
School of Civil & Environmental Engineering (SCEE)
National University of Sciences & Technology (NUST)
Islamabad, Pakistan
Measurement of Precipitation
 magnitude, intensity, location, patterns
of precipitation
 quantity of precipitation as well as, the
spatial and temporal distributions of
the precipitation have considerable
effects on the hydrologic response.
Measurement of Precipitation
 Amount of Precipitation
The amount of precipitation means the vertical depth
of water that would accumulate on a level surface, if
the precipitation remains where it falls. The amount of
precipitation is measured in length units (inches, ft.,
cm., mm., etc).
 Intensity or Rate of Precipitation
Amount of precipitation per unit time is called the
intensity or rate of precipitation (mm/hour, etc.)

Both the amount and rate of precipitation are

important in hydrologic studies.
Measurement of Precipitation
Precipitation is measured by:
 Raingauge
 Radar
 Satellite
 Rain Gauges
 The purpose of a rain gauge is to measure
the amount of rainfall at a single point
 Measure What?
 Depth of water on a flat surface
 Depth is assumed to be same as
surroundings
 Types of Rain Gauges
There are two types of rain gauges:
a. Non-recording rain gauge (Standard rain gauge)
A non-recording rain gauge is typically a
catchment device calibrated to provide visual
observation of rainfall amounts.
b. Recording rain gauge
Recording gauges are equipped with paper charts
and/or data logger equipment / Telemetry
(electronic collection and transmission)
 Non-recording Rain Gauge
 Container of varying dimensions and heights e.g.
- Symon’s Rain Gauge (127 mm diameter)
- U. S. Weather Bureau Rain Gauge (200 mm
diameter)
 Requirements
- Sharp edge
- Rim (edge) falls away vertically
- Prevent splashing
- Narrow neck prevents evaporation
Image here
 U. S. Weather Bureau Rain Gauge
The standard gauge of U. S. Weather Bureau has a
collector of 200 mm diameter and 600 mm height.
Rain passes from a collector into a cylindrical
measuring tube inside the overflow can. The
measuring tube has a cross-sectional area 1/10th of the
collector, so that 2.5 mm rainfall will fill the tube to 25
mm depth. A measuring stick is marked in such a way
that 1/10th of a cm depth can be measured. In this way
net rainfall can be measured to the nearest 1 mm. The
collector and tube are removed when snow is expected.
The snow collected in the outer container or overflow
can is melted, poured into the measuring tube and
then measured.
Non-recording Gauges

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Two types of standard storage raingauge
 Recording Rain Gauges
 Analogue Devices
 Weighing Bucket Rain Gauge
 Float Type Rain Gauge
 Digital Devices
 Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge
 Optical Rain Gauge
Analogue Recording Rain Gauges
 Weighing Bucket Rain Gauge
 Standard instrument used to quantify rainfall.
 Spring scale beneath the collecting bucket
platform that is calibrated to mark the rainfall
depth on a paper chart.
 The chart is rotated by a spring-driven or
electric clock at speeds of 1 revolution in 6, 9, 12,
24, or 192 hours.
 The rain gauge chart is a record of the
accumulated of rainfall for the selected time
interval.
 Weighing Bucket Rain Gauge
The weighing rain gauge consists of a metal canister that
houses a funnel, a pail that sits atop a scale, and an analog
recorder (a rotating drum with paper). Once 0.01 inches of
rain falls through the funnel into the pail, the weight of the
water on the scale triggers the pen on the recorder to move
upwards. As more rain falls, the pen continues to move
upwards creating a time series of rainfall amount on the
chart paper of the rotating drum, which is turned by a
clock mechanism. Although precipitation is measured by
its weight, it is converted to inches on the chart. The chart
paper is replaced weekly, but the pail is emptied only when
it becomes too full, every two months or so.
Weighing Bucket Rain Gauge
Analogue Recording Rain Gauges
 Float Type Rain Gauge
 Standard instrument used to quantify rainfall.
 Float within collecting bucket rises with level
 Vertical movement marked by pen and shows rainfall
depth on a paper chart.
 The chart is rotated by a spring-driven or electric
clock at speeds of 1 revolution in 6, 9, 12, 24, or 192
hours.
 The rain gauge chart is a record of the accumulated
of rainfall for the selected time interval.
Analogue Recording Rain Gauges
Analogue Recording Rain Gauges
 Float Type Rain Gauge with Siphon(tube)
 Standard instrument used to quantify rainfall.
 Usually with Float Type Rain Gauges
 System siphons itself at a certain level (typically 25mm)
 Empties container completely
 Stores siphoned water in separate (total) container
 Total container as check
 Pen returns to bottom line
 Problems
 15 seconds to siphon
 Cannot record snow
 Susceptible to freezing
Digital Recording Rain Gauges
 Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge
 Two containers on balance beam form a “tipping bucket”
 Rain fills one container until it threshold weight reached
 Bucket then tips over, emptying collected water into total
container and continues to collect rainfall in other container
 Magnet generates electric pulse which is recorded
 Problems
 Cannot record snow
 Evaporation from buckets
 Discontinuous record in light rain
 Susceptible (influenced) to freezing
Digital Recording Rain Gauges
 Optical Rain Gauge (ORG)
 The ORG is mounted (attached) on a small pole
 The ORG sends a beam of light (which can’t be seen)
from one of its ends to a detector at the other end.
 When raindrops fall, they break the beam. The rain
rate is measured by the ORG by measuring how
often the beam is broken.
 The rain rate can be used to calculate the total
amount of rain that has fallen in any given period
 ORG measures the rate of rainfall in millimeters per
hour (mm/hr).
 Sources of Error
 Mistakes in reading the scale of gauge
 Dents in collector rim and measuring tube may
change its receiving area
 Instrumental error in gauge or in their
recording or measuring arrangements
 Some rainwater may get lost due to splash from
the collector
 Some initial rainwater may get lost in
moistening gauge funnel and inside surfaces i.e.
wetting the surface of the instrument
 Sources of Error
 Blowing wind may tilt the rains from vertical which
thus brings less rain catch in the gauge
 Vertical upward air currents may impact upward
acceleration to precipitation thus brings less rain
catch in the gauge
 Gauge inclined 10° from vertical will cater 1.5% less
rainfall than it should or sometime gauge receive
more rain
 No rainfall recorded during tipping of bucket /
siphoning of water colleting cylinder
 Tipping of bucket may be affected due to rusting or
accumulation of dust on pivot point
 Measured Gauge Accuracy
 (Un)avoidable Errors
 Equipment failure
 Observer error

 Avoidable Errors
 Site
 Obstructions
 Splashing
 Surrounds
 Wind
• Windshields (i.e. splash guards) may
reduce the loss due to turbulence (eddies)
around the gauge
• Ideally, the gauge should be sited with
some shelter, but not over-sheltered.
 Measured Gauge Accuracy
 Common Errors
 Evaporation - 1%
 Adhesion - 0.5%
 Inclination - 0.5%
 Splash +1%
 Wind -5-8%
 Measured Gauge Accuracy
 Two problems arise in quantifying precipitation
input to a given land area:
 how to measure precipitation at one or more
points in space
 how to interpolate/extrapolate these point
measurements to determine the total amount
of water delivered to a particular land area.
 EXAMPLE
Example 3.1
A rain gauge recorded 125 mm of precipitation. It was
found later that the gauge was inclined at an angle of
20 degree with the vertical. Find the actual
precipitation.

Solution:
P (measured) = 125 mm
Angle of inclination (θ) = 200 with the vertical
P(actual) = P(measured)/cos (θ) = 125/cos 200 = 133 mm
 Advantages of Recording Rain Gauges
 Rainfall is recorded automatically, therefore no
need of attendant
 Recording rain gauge also gives intensity of
rainfall at any time, while non-recording gauge
gives only total rainfall for time interval
 Recording rain gauges can be installed far off
places as no need of attendant
 Possibility of human error is obviated
(removed)
Disadvantages of Recording Rain Gauges
 Costly in comparison to non-recording gauges
 Error in recording rainfall due to fault in
electrical or mechanical mechanism
 Recording of Data
 Paper Charts
 Data Loggers
 Telemetry
 Recording of Data
 Paper Charts
 Simplest method
 Chart moved by spring or electronically driven clock
past pen
 Pen moves with weight/float etc
 Two Types
 Drum - rotates
 Strip - moves past pen
 Recording of Data
 Data Loggers
 A data logger is a computer that records and stores
data from sensors both analog (voltage) and
digital(counts).
 The data logger requires a program to tell it what to
do.
 Preloaded computer chip that already has the program in it
 or create the program
 Data can then be accessed by a computer to monitor
current conditions or download stored data.
 Recording of Data
 Data Loggers
 Problems
 Vandalism (damage) due to desirability of batteries
 Recording of Data
 Telemetry
 Data stored by logger can transferred directly to a
base station via some form of telecommunication
 Telemetry is the highly automated communications
process by which measurements are made and other
data collected at remote or inaccessible points and
transmitted to receiving equipment for monitoring
 Rain Gauge Network
 Design of Precipitation Network depends upon
the purpose:
 Developing & managing water resources
 Operational purposes like flood forecasting,
operation of reservoirs, research, etc
 Factors Affecting Density
 Physiographical and hydrological factors like terrain
and rainfall regimes
 Flat regions of temperate and tropical zones
 Mountain regions
 Arid and Polar regions
 Stream network
 Population density and economic activity
 RAINGAUGE NETWORK
World Meteorological Organization (WMO) recommendation:

1. In flat regions of temperate, Mediterranean (dry summer, mild

winter) and tropical zones:
ideal – 1 station for 600 – 900 km2
acceptable – 1 station for 900 – 3000 km2
2. In mountainous regions of temperate, Mediterranean and
topical zones:
ideal - 1 station for 100—250 km2
acceptable - 1 station for 250—1000 km2
3. In arid and polar zones: I station for 1500—10,000 km2
depending on the feasibility.
• 10 % of the raingauges should be self recording to know the intensity of
the rainfall

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 Rain Gauge Network
 Network density of rain gauges depends upon
 Uses for which the rainfall data intended
 Represent picture of the aerial distribution of rainfall
 Area (Sq Km) Rain Gauge Stations
0 - 80 1
80 – 160 2
160 – 320 3
320 – 560 4
560 – 800 5
800 – 1000 6
 Measurement of Precipitation by Radar
Modem technique for measurement of rainfall rate  can also
detect local movement of areas of precipitation
The electromagnetic energy released & received back by radar is
a measure of rainfall intensity
The measurement is appreciably affected by trees & buildings.
However extent of rainfall can be estimated with reasonable
accuracy
Use of radar is useful where number of rain gauges installed in
an area is not sufficient
 Measurement of Precipitation by Satellite
Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission, TRMM (NASA)

Globally the average annual rainfall depth is 1 m

Rainfall data serves as input for models. More accurate
rainfall information can lead to improved water level
forecasts.
 Weather Forecasting System of PMD
DATA
Weather Stations/Observatories Network

80 Rain Gauge Stations

50 AWS
Data Bank of PMD (CDPC)
 Weather Forecasting System of PMD
DATA
Radar Network of PMD
10-cm Doppler Radars

1- Lahore
2- Mangla

QPM (Quantitiative ppt

measurement) Radar

1- Sialkot

5-cm Wx. Surveillance Radars

1- Islamabad
2- D.I.Khan
3- Rahim Yar Khan
4- Karachi
 Weather Forecasting System of PMD
DATA
Satellite Ground Stations of PMD

HRPT ( high resolution picture transmission )

1- Islamabad
2- Quetta

FY-2 E/D (Chinese)

1- Islamabad